Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 2, Issue 11, Part 3

PPS INTERNSHIP

Pacific Primate Sanctuary is seeking New World Primate Caregiver/Office Assistant Resident Interns. We would welcome someone with a background in animal husbandry and an interest in animal welfare and conservation, who is a mature team player with respect for others. Qualified Applicants are invited to apply. Please click on the link here for more details, and e-mail us at pps@aloha.net

CONTINUING EDUCATION

Special Topic: Intern Lisa


Spider Monkeys, Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution of the Genus Ateles
Chapter 4: Diets of wild spider monkeys

C.R. Carpenter conducted the first comprehensive field study of wild spider monkey diets back in the 1930’s in Panama. He found that spider monkeys’ diet consist of 90% fruit. Since his studies in the 1930’s other subsequent studies have basically confirmed what Carpenter found out.

Overall, the bulk of their diet consists of fruits-mainly ripe fruits. To compliment the diet they also eat plant parts, such as leaves, flowers, and seeds. Spider monkeys tend to eat the fruit and the seeds whole. Spider monkeys typically eat over the course of the day, usually in the morning and afternoon, with less activity in the midday. After feeding, spider monkeys will usually rest for a long time and tend to defecate large numbers of indigestible seeds from their bowels- this makes them great plant dispersers.

The social organization of spider monkeys is tied closely to their diet. Spider monkeys are part of a large community that splits into smaller groups to travel and feed. This type of social structure is known as a fission-fusion society.

Spider monkeys are well adapted for their diet of fruit. Spider monkeys posses a simple unelongated digestive tract and have a fast gut passage time relative to their body size. This enables them to rapidly ingest larger numbers of fruit and get what they need from these fruits and clear away the indigestible seeds.

-Campbell, Christina J. Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior, and Ecology of the Genus Ateles (Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology). UK. Cambridge University Press. 2008.


Special Topic: Intern Cheryl


The Complete Capuchin. The Biology of the Genus Cebus


Chapter 3: Community Ecology: How Do Capuchins Interact With Their Local Communities and Influence Their Environments?

Most of the protein in Capuchin diets comes from invertebrates, primarily insects and other arthropods like snails. Capuchins are the only species of primate known to specialize in finding and extracting hidden and embedded insects e.g. larvae of beetles. Much of their time is spent finding food that can be easily captured and eaten.

Capuchins are known to switch to alternative foods (as discussed last month) when fruit and insects are scarce. One alternative is vertebrate prey. It so happens that the main nesting periods for parrots and squirrels is during the dry season when fruits and caterpillars are less common for Capuchins. During this time they will take advantage of the availability of eggs and often the birds and squirrels.

 A Capuchin monkey at PPS eats a fig

It is widely believed that Capuchins are subject to predation by animals such as jaguars, pumas, coyotes and raptors. However, monkeys can thwart predation attempts in several ways: they can be cryptic and silent; they can run away from predators; they can give loud alarm calls to warn others and they can actively confront predators.

Although Capuchins don’t commonly consume flowers, they have been known to insert their faces deep into certain flowers to obtain the nectar within. The pollen dust, which then clings to their face, would allow for dispersion and give Capuchins the role of pollinators. They are also known to tap branches and listen to the sounds of embedded insects; they will then break off the branch and lick out the grubs. ‘Tree pruning’ is a sufficiently common activity during foraging that researchers on the ground must be constantly alert to the dangers of falling branches!

Capuchins have been found to live in the same Neotropical forest with many other New World species. Capuchins have been found to co-exist with many others of the same species, something found to be quite rare with other species. This is most likely due to their abilities to exploit many different food sources and habitats.

This genus of monkey preys on both invertebrates and vertebrates and in turn, is preyed upon by a wide variety of carnivores. While their preferred foods are fruit and insects, they also occasionally eat seeds and flowers. At other times Capuchins disperse seeds away from the parent tree, and they carry pollen from one flower to another. It has been argued that Capuchins lower the numbers of certain insects that infest trees. They occasionally take agricultural foods from fields and orchards, leading to conflict with farmers, who may hunt them in retribution. They sometimes forage in mixed species groups, benefiting the other types of monkeys that travel with them. Clearly, Capuchins participate fully in the many forms of competition and cooperation that characterize the dynamics of ecological communities.

Fragaszy, D.M., Visalberghi, E., Fedigan, L.M. (2004) The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. UK. Cambridge University Press


Special Topic: Infant Care: Marmosets and Tamarins

Both marmosets and tamarins provide communal infant care, which includes infant carrying and provisioning. Most species carry their infants for greater than 90% of the time for the first four weeks of its life. The amount of time an infant is carried varies among different species. For example, Callithrix (marmosets) carry and support infants for a shorter period of time than Saguinus (tamarins) do. The differences aren't due to variations in body sizes or growth rates, but because of ranging patterns, which impact energetics and group dynamics.

In many marmoset and tamarin species the mothers aren't the primary source of solid food for the infants. The mothers already expend energy for the infants through lactation, so additional foraging pressures would greatly decrease the mothers' energy. Ranging patterns are key to the varying degrees of communal infant care. With greater foraging distances, more communal effort is given to infant care.

-. Rylands, Anthony B. Marmosets and Tamarins: Systematics, Behaviour, and Ecology.1993: Oxford University Press; Oxford. 220-34.

“I want to realize brotherhood or identity, not merely with the beings called human, but I want to realize identity with all life...”
—Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948)

We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 74 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and smugglers. Here they can heal, form families, and live free from exploitation.

This Blog and its content is copyright of Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc.—
© Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc., 2009. All rights reserved.
Any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited other than the following:
you may print or download to a local hard disk extracts for your personal and non-commercial use only
you may copy the content to individual third parties for their personal use, but only if you acknowledge the website as the source of the material
You may not, except with our express written permission, distribute or commercially exploit the content. Nor may you transmit it or store it in any other website or other form of electronic retrieval system.

Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 2, Issue 10, Part 3

CONTINUING EDUCATION

Special Topic: Intern Lisa


Spider Monkeys, Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution of the Genus Ateles
Chapter 3: Taxonomic status of spider monkeys in the twenty-first century

Spider monkeys have one of the largest geographical distributions of any Neotropical primate, due to habitat preferences, dietary needs, and their social system. TGus has lead to a variety of species and sub-species, known by multiple names to local cultures. In previous studies of spider monkey taxonomy, pelage (fur) variation was one way of categorizing them. The first study done to determine spider monkey species initially found four species and sixteen subspecies of Ateles relying on pelage differences. Today more studies are being done to find more taxonomic differences focusing on molecular variation and other more in-depth scientific methods.

Here at PPS we have the Ateles geoffroyi, the Black-handed Spider Monkey. This species is found throughout Central America and along the western coast of South America west of the Andes. There are a variety of subspecies of the Ateles geoffroyi throughout this geographical region.

-Campbell, Christina J. Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior, and Ecology of the Genus Ateles (Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology). UK. Cambridge University Press. 2008.

Carlos, a Black-handed Spider Monkey, rescued from a tourist attraction

Special Topic: Intern Cheryl


The Complete Capuchin. The Biology of the Genus Cebus
Chapter 2: Behavioral Ecology: How Do Capuchins Make A Living?

This chapter explores how Capuchins make a living including how they stay safe, what they eat, and variations in behavior over daily activities, night sleeping patterns and seasonal feeding patterns.
Capuchins of all species relish easily accessible fleshy fruits like figs if available, but they will also find ways to obtain food other monkeys don’t use. They seem to specialize in targeting food that ‘fights back’, that is, plants, insects and small invertebrates with strong and elaborate defenses against predators. By varying their diet, Capuchins have the flexibility to switch from readily accessible foods (fruit) to more inaccessible ones when fruit is scarce. It also reduces the chances of overlapping diets with other arboreal primates in the same area (such as Spider monkeys, Squirrel monkeys).

RANGING PATTERNS: There are 4 ways in which Capuchins use their space:
• Relying on insects – use space homogeneously (very close-knit)
• Highly patchy resources (fruit) – use space in shifting irregular patterns depending on fruit sources
• Defendable resources – use space by patrolling boundaries
• Depending on one sleeping site or watering hole – use space by concentrating movement to a core area
Capuchins have been known to use a combination of all of these ways of using their space. Usually troops with more adult males will use a larger area.

DAILY PATTERNS: Capuchins are active during the day; from shortly before dawn to sometime around dusk. The main components to daily activities are: travel, feed/forage, rest and socialize. What a monkey eats constrains how he uses his time and space. Frugivores need to spend much of their time traveling due to the fact that fruit trees tend to be scattered in different patches of forest.
Capuchins obtain their carbohydrates and bulk of their calories from fruit. For proteins they will usually turn to young leaves, seeds or insects. Due to this kind of diet, more time is spent foraging and traveling than socializing and resting.

NIGHTLY SLEEPING PATTERNS: Capuchins are arboreal, which means they sleep up in the trees. Selection of sleeping sites is usually influenced by safety from predators, comfort, stable substrates and a large location that can inhabit an entire group to sleep in. They will often select branches higher up in the tree, that way the branch will vibrate if a predator steps near it. They will also choose trees that are close to others in case they have to jump to another tree should trouble appear.

SEASONAL FEEDING PATTERNS: It has been found that during the rainy season, food is more abundant for Capuchins, whereas in the dry season food is less available. Fruit will generally be eaten more in the rainy season whereas during the dry season insects, bird nestlings and eggs will feature more in their diet.
It has also been found that Capuchins will decrease their traveling range when their watering hole starts to dry up, and turn to non-fruit items within a short traveling distance.
- Fragaszy, D.M., Visalberghi, E., Fedigan, L.M. (2004) The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. UK. Cambridge University Press.

White Faced Capuchin Monkeys at PPS- Miranda and her granddaughter, Viola

Behavioral Specialist, Mary Catherine- Special Topic


Positive Reinforcement Training Techniques

Positive reinforcement training (PRT) is a vital tool for gaining trust and voluntary cooperation when working with captive nonhuman primates. Here at Pacific Primate Sanctuary, efforts are always being made to apply PRT techniques to husbandry procedures in order to reduce stress and enhance the welfare of the monkeys. Here is a quick reference to some of the main PRT techniques used here at PPS:

Bridge (a.k.a. Conditioned Reinforcer) – Clicker training is a popular tool used in dog obedience school. It involves a handheld clicker acting as the conditioned reinforcer of a good behavior, or bridge. The technique is elegantly simple. Initially, you make a click as you present food to the trainee. Over time the click stands for the reward, which is food. Soon the animal, in our case the monkey, hears the click and looks to you for the reward. Now you can use the click to explain to the monkey what behavior you are trying to elicit from them by clicking at the exact moment when the behavior occurs. The monkey associates the click with a reward, so upon hearing the click they know they have done it right instantly, though it may take you a few seconds to actually get the food reward to them. The click acts as a bridge between the desired behavior and the food reward. Essentially, the click says to the animal, “Yes! That’s right! Good job, now come and get your treat.”

Shaping – When teaching a monkey a new behavior, (such as standing on a scale), you must first break it down into small steps, which you then teach in succession and build upon each step. This technique is called shaping. For example, the steps to standing on a scale may be broken down like this: 1) Place the scale in their home cage and reward the monkey (using the bridge followed by a treat). 2) Reward the monkey anytime they approach the scale. 3) Reward when they take any step onto the scale (see how handy the bridge is? The moment a foot steps onto the scale, you click, and the animal knows right then what they did right was place a foot on the scale). 4) Reward when they have all 4 feet on the scale. 5) Finally, reward the monkey for standing still on the scale for a set amount of time. Working patiently over time, these small steps can lead to a great new behavior, which should be fun and mentally stimulating for both the trainer and trainee.

Target – Training an animal to touch a particular object can be very helpful in many areas of captive primate care. Any object can be your target, though ideally it should be something you can hold and/or clip onto the outside of the cage. Using shaping, you can train a monkey to approach and hold the target in order to station them at a particular place in the enclosure. You can also train them to touch the target with different body parts (nose, hand, foot, back), which can be very helpful in examining any injuries without having to capture the animal.

Sometimes when I sit here quietly, an ocean and a continent away, I believe I can hear your monkeys singing. It is a joyful sensation. Thank YOU and all of the volunteers for the wonderful work you do, and for giving us a chance to be a part of it.

— A monthly PPS Supporter

We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 74 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and smugglers. Here they can heal, form families, and live free from exploitation.


This Blog and its content is copyright of Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc.—
© Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc., 2009. All rights reserved.
Any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited other than the following:
you may print or download to a local hard disk extracts for your personal and non-commercial use only
you may copy the content to individual third parties for their personal use, but only if you acknowledge the website as the source of the material
You may not, except with our express written permission, distribute or commercially exploit the content. Nor may you transmit it or store it in any other website or other form of electronic retrieval system.

Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 2, Issue 9, Part 3

CONTINUING EDUCATION

Special Topic: Intern Lisa

Spider Monkeys, Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution of the Genus Ateles

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 discusses how Spider monkeys (genus Ateles) have been largely unstudied in the wild, despite the fact that this genus is often seen as the “typical monkey”.  Studying Spider Monkeys in the wild has been difficult due to the fact that they are fast moving, wide ranging, and live high in the canopy.  So often, when being studied, only a few community members can be studied at one time.  However, in the last decade the number of studies on spider monkeys has increased.  Areas of study include Spider Monkey ecology (the study of the relationships between the organism and their environment), behavior, physiology (the functions of an animal’s parts), morphology (the study of the form or shape of an organism) and evolution.

Part 1: Taxonomy, phylogeny, and evolution

Chapter 2 Morphology and evolution of the spider monkey, genus Ateles

Spider monkeys are well suited for life in the upper canopy foraging for ripe fruit. This is seen throughout the spider monkeys skeletal morphology.  Spider monkeys’ bodies are also the closest to a gibbon that has evolved in the Order Primates.  Spider monkeys, like gibbons are brachiators, meaning they use their arms to move from tree branch to branch. 

The general morphology of spider monkeys has enabled them to successfully adapt to their environment.  The skeleton is designed to help suspend and hurl their body weight, which allows them to swing through the trees. Their energy rich diet had allowed them to have modestly enlarged brains.  The brain of the genus Ateles typically weighs over 100 grams.  The dentition (teeth) in the Ateles is functionally suited for a classically frugivore  (fruit eating) diet.  Incisor teeth (which are used to shear food sharply) are well developed. The canines (teeth used to firmly hold food in order to tear apart) differ in male and females. In males the upper canines are long, slender, and re-curved and in females they are slightly shorter, stouter, and less projecting.  Studies are being conducted to understand why there is sexual dimorphism in canine teeth.  Another interesting morphological features of the spider monkey is its missing thumb, or as it is also known the pollex.  The fingers on a spider monkey hand are long and re-curved, almost hook-like, and the limbs tend to be long and spindly.  The arms tend to be about 25% longer than the legs.  Another interesting feature of the spider monkey is its prehensile tail.  The tail is very strong and has a palm-like pad at the end.  The tail acts almost as an extra limb.  All these interesting morphological features have made the genus Ateles a very proficient animal for life high in the rainforest canopy.

-Campbell, Christina J. Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior and Ecology of the Genus Ateles (Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology). UK. Cambridge University Press. 2008

Special Topic: Intern Cheryl

The Complete Capuchin. The Biology of the Genus Cebus

Chapter 1:  Taxonomy, Distribution and Conversation: Where and What Are They and How Did They Get There?

In this chapter, the authors describe the appearance of the Genus Cebus as well as the areas occupied by Capuchins and distribution of the species. The chapter also discusses the main causes of decreasing wild populations of Capuchins in Central and South America.

TAXONOMY: Capuchins are robustly built due to their arboreal (tree-dwelling) lifestyle and have arms and legs of nearly equal length. They also possess semi-prehensile tails that enable them to grasp with their tail like they do with their hands and feet. Although mainly arboreal, Capuchins are known to venture down to the ground to forage for food. They have large canine teeth and thickly enameled molars that are well adapted to crushing seeds and tearing open hard fruits.

Capuchins are known for the distinctive caps on their crowns that appear in various colors and shapes in different species. For example, White-fronted Capuchins (Cebus albifrons) have a brown cap, whereas the White-faced Capuchin (Cebus capucinus) typically has a black cap. The White-faced Capuchin is the only species with jet-black fur on their body, limbs and tail. White fur occurs around the black cap on the crown, as well as on the throat, shoulders, chest and upper arms. The facial skin is pink and the amount of white fur on the face tends to vary depending on sex, class and age.

Capuchins can find their closest phylogenetic affinities (evolutionary relations) in Squirrel monkeys. It has been suggested that Capuchins branched off from a common Cebid ancestor around 22-23 million years ago; compare that to marmosets and tamarins that are younger at 13-16 million years. More fossil samples are needed however to clarify the picture of Cebid evolution.

DISTRIBUTION:  Capuchins have one of the widest distributions of any New World primate genus. Most species are found throughout South America from extreme northwestern Ecuador to parts of Argentina and Paraguay. Many species of Cebus will inhabit similar areas in South America. The White-faced Capuchin has been noted mostly in Ecuador, western Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and the Honduras and is the only species of Capuchin to occupy Central America starting in the Honduras, while still maintaining areas in South America along the Colombian Andes.

Capuchins tend to occupy humid and dry tropical forests, swamp forests and seasonally flooded forests as well as dry deciduous forests where rainfall is absent for 5-6 months a year. They are mostly seen in the middle layers of the forest, but use all levels from the canopy to the under storey and sometimes the ground to drink, forage and travel.

The numerous amounts of data collected from different habitat types suggests that they exhibit the ability to explore almost any type of Neotropical forest to the fullest extent.

CONSERVATION STATUS: It is well known that most species of Cebus are under threat from more than one source. Three main causes are listed here:

1) Many populations across central and South America are affected by humans altering the natural environment for economic development, in particular by the outright destruction of their forests. This is considered to be the most significant factor in the decline of wild populations of Capuchins. It is important to state that as tropical forests decline, so will the number of animals that depend on them.

2) Hunting is a highly significant stress on Capuchin populations. Monkeys are hunted for food as well as body parts (for ornamental purposes and medicinal). In South America as well as Africa, monkeys are often used for ‘bush meat’. Hunters would usually aim for the larger monkeys such as Spider monkeys, Woolley monkeys and Howler monkeys. Infant monkeys are usually raised as pets

3) Live capture for export and trade on the pet market, for biomedical research or for exhibition in zoos is also another big threat to Capuchin populations. Fortunately, this factor has been greatly reduced in recent years due to imposed legislations and introductions of animal welfare and changing missions in zoos. The want to protect and preserve has now overtaken the need to exhibit.

This chapter has educated the reader in identifying species of Cebus, identified where to find them and what in this world is threatening their existence. There is some argument when defining habitat usage for the genus, as many populations over large parts of South America have not been documented.

- Fragaszy, D.M., Visalberghi, E., Fedigan, L.M. (2004) The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. UK. Cambridge University Press.

Special Topic: Intern Dana

Rylands Marmosets and Tamarins, Systematics, Behavior and Ecology

CHAPTER 8: Flexibility and Co-Operation as Unifying Themes in Saguinus Social Organization and Behavior

For most of the history of primatology, New World Monkeys have been considered poor candidates for behavioral research. It was believed that there was little to be gained from studying them, since they are farther removed from humans evolutionarily than Old World Monkeys and apes. The Callitrichidae have been the least studied, and it wasn’t until the late 1980’s when researchers began investigating the complexities of marmoset and tamarin mating systems. It was around the same time that the field of Primatology began investigating the issue of predation as an important pressure on primate social behavior. In this article, Caine discusses how the natural behavior of tamarins has been and continues to be shaped largely by predation.

The author argues that there are two fundamental principles in understanding tamarin social behavior. These are 1) The fundamental elements of tamarin social life are co-operation, tolerance, and adaptability, and 2) that predation is among the most important selection pressure influencing social behavior and group structure.

        

Until recently, monogamy was assumed to be the center of tamarin social organization. However, research has shown that they are more polyandrous (one female, multi-male) than originally assumed. In captivity, Cotton Top Tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) pairs act aggressively to new conspecifics (other animals of the same species) during intruder studies; interestingly, it is only the males who act with aggression, and only to other males.

        

A trait that characterizes all Saguinus species to date is co-operation, especially regarding infant care. All adult members carry infants, usually from within a few hours or a few days of birth. The infants go back to their mothers mainly to nurse. Adults also have been seen sharing food with infants. When traveling and foraging, group members move in a cohesive manner and even produce monitoring calls as they move through the jungle. Aggression is rarely observed in free-ranging groups. In captivity, adults are far more likely to tolerate each other when feeding; food calls are given when even a small amount of desirable food is found.

        

Tamarins are also very co-operative with respect to anti-predator behavior. Predators include birds, snakes, tayras (large weasels), and ocelots. Avoidance, alarm calling, and sometimes mobbing are their primary tactics. To avoid predators at night, tamarins retire before dusk, have increased vigilance, and carefully select sleeping sights. Caine argues that it is the tamarins’ vigilance for predators, rather than their response to them, that promotes cooperative social behavior. Individuals can spend more time eating and less time looking around when responsibility for vigilance is shared. In conclusion, predation pressures seem to play the most critical role in determining tamarin group size and social interactions.

-Rylands, A.B. Marmosets and Tamarins. Systematics, Behavior, and Ecology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993.

We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter.  Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 74 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and smugglers.  Here they can heal, form families, and live free from exploitation.

“We've all got both light and dark inside us. What matters is the part we choose to act on. That's who we really are.” — J.K. Rowling, author (b. 1965)

This Blog and its content is copyright of Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc.—
© Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc., 2009. All rights reserved.
Any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited other than the following:
you may print or download to a local hard disk extracts for your personal and non-commercial use only
you may copy the content to individual third parties for their personal use, but only if you acknowledge the website as the source of the material
You may not, except with our express written permission, distribute or commercially exploit the content. Nor may you transmit it or store it in any other website or other form of electronic retrieval system.

Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 2, Issue 8, Part 3

PPS INTERNSHIP

Welcome to the two newest PPS Interns: Cheryl and Lisa

Cheryl arrived on Monday, July 25th from England. She has recently received a Bachelor’s Degree in Applied Animal Studies. She is passionate about working with primates, and is intrigued with primate intelligence and social structures. Cheryl spent time exploring Chimpanzee grooming habits within zoos for her undergraduate dissertation. In 2007 Cheryl visited South Africa for 6 weeks as a volunteer for a Vervet monkey sanctuary. During this time she worked hands on with orphaned babies as well as helping to maintain the other 100 or so monkeys. Cheryl writes: “I have a great passion for primates and would love to expand the experience I’ve already gained and would like the chance to work with different species in a place like yours that is completely dedicated to the well-being of the monkeys.


I feel that my previous experience gained from volunteer work with monkeys will be useful as I have proven that I am able to adapt to new environments by myself, take on responsibilities that are key to the monkeys well-being, and show that I am able and willing to undertake every aspect of keeping monkeys and ensuring that they are healthy and happy… I want to thank you very much for offering me this position and giving me such an amazing opportunity to further my experience working with primates…I am really looking forward to learning as much as I can from people who have already gained expertise… and aim to contribute as much as I can to give to the primates the best life that they deserve…“


Lisa arrived on Tuesday, July 27th. She has a B.S. in Biology and has worked with 52 exotic big cats in a sanctuary environment, provided care for a variety of birds at the Dallas Zoo, and assisted with avian rehabilitation at the Texas State Aquarium. Lisa writes: “No matter how I write it, it cannot express how excited I am or thankful to be joining you all at PPS…


You never know when the opportunity of a lifetime will appear, but I’m so thankful it did. I found out about the Pacific Primate Sanctuary through one of my email groups. When I visited the website, I knew that it would be the right place for me, and after visiting with Lucy & Erin on the phone I was even surer. I think what drew me most to PPS was the simple message ‘Where the suffering stops and the healing begins!’

Welcome Lisa and Cheryl, we are so happy to have you

as part of the Sanctuary Family!

CONTINUING EDUCATION

Special Topic- Dana


Ryland’s Marmosets and Tamarins
Systematics, Behavior and Ecology


Chapter 7: The Social Organization of Marmosets: A Critical Evaluation of Recent Concepts

In this chapter, the authors Rothe and Darms discuss marmoset group composition, size, and mating habits. Understanding migration rates, and the age and sex of individuals is the key to deciphering the marmoset mating system.

In wild populations, immigration (monkeys joining the group) and emigration (monkeys leaving the group) seem to affect the structure of a society more than births and deaths. Immigrants are usually only welcome when it benefits all the family members, or they’ll be met with hostility. In the wild, friendly contacts between individuals of different social units do occur, but rather infrequently. Potential immigrants are only welcomed if they would benefit all family members. However, in captivity, marmoset groups/families are usually unwilling to integrate adult strangers whatsoever; therefore, births and deaths are what determine group size and composition.

In captivity, marmoset groups regulate their group size and composition by evictions of subadult/adult members. The probability of being expelled, especially by same-sexed siblings, increases with family size and with the increasing age of the social unit. The authors expect that in the wild, most juveniles will settle on natal or adjacent home ranges. Because of this, marmosets have a keen understanding of who is kin, so that inbreeding can be avoided.

White-tufted Eared Marmoset Couple

In any marmoset group, reproduction is the privilege of the alpha pair. The pair-bond is formed after the establishment of the group hierarchy. There have been about 160 Callithrichid societies observed for long periods of time, and monogamy was observed almost 100% of the time. One of the main advantages of monogamy is considered to be male investment in offspring. Co-operation, especially involving infant care, is an important aspect of callitrichid social organization. Having helpers raise offspring can be explained by 1) gaining rearing experience 2) the contribution to inclusive fitness via kin selection (by helping raise your sibling’s offspring you are ensuring that your family genes are passed on) 3) belated benefits through reciprocal altruism (i.e. I’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine). The authors conclude that helping to rear infants is probably a matter of seniority and/or hierarchical status.

-Rylands, A.B. Marmosets and Tamarins. Systematics, Behavior, and Ecology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993.

We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 74 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and smugglers. Here they can heal, form families, and live free from exploitation.



May all sentient beings be endowed with happiness.
May they all be separated from suffering and its causes.
May they be endowed with joy, free from suffering.
May they abide in equanimity, free from attraction and aversion.

— The Tibetan Book of the Dead


This Blog and its content is copyright of Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc.—
© Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc., 2009. All rights reserved.
Any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited other than the following:
you may print or download to a local hard disk extracts for your personal and non-commercial use only
you may copy the content to individual third parties for their personal use, but only if you acknowledge the website as the source of the material
You may not, except with our express written permission, distribute or commercially exploit the content. Nor may you transmit it or store it in any other website or other form of electronic retrieval system.

Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 2, Issue 7, Part 3

PPS INTERNSHIP

Farewell to Intern Robin:

Intern Robin has completed her 2 year internship, and will be greatly missed. Robin cared for the monkeys with such unparalleled competence, shared her knowledge and wisdom with all of the caregivers, and trained many volunteers and Interns. We would like to thank her for being our Head Animal Caregiver, for her proficiency and expertise in managing primate pairing, housing, and especially for her devotion and deep love for the monkeys. She has been such an asset to the Sanctuary and leaves a great legacy!

Robin helped to create the Intern Manual and shared with us her amazing observational skills. Robin had the ability to pick up on the slightest changes in a monkey’s behavior and appearance and has saved the lives of many monkeys who were in need of prompt medical attention. She shared this skill with Dana, Mary Catherine, and all of the volunteers so that future caretakers will carry on this wonderful gift. We will miss her handiness, and ability to think up solutions to technical difficulties and fix things. Robin has been a remarkable addition to the Sanctuary and, fortunately, she plans to stay on Maui, and intends to continue volunteering as a caregiver at Pacific Primate Sanctuary.


Intern Robin’s Wrap Up: “… this is the Sanctuary that the USDA inspector visits to feel good about the world again!

I can't even begin to explain what a wonderful experience the past two years have been for me at PPS. I feel so blessed to have been able to do something I truly love, and am so grateful to have been given the opportunity… I'd like to thank the people who have been a part of my life here. I wish I had the space to thank each volunteer!
I have learned something from each one of you, and I feel privileged to have known and worked with such selfless, good-hearted people…

I can't… describe in words how amazing these monkeys are, but I'd like to say a little bit about what I've learned from them. Fruit snacks are heavenly, and Nutrical is too… I learned how to tie a zip tie with one hand, and how to give meds out with one hand and treats with the other. I was reminded about the fact that each animal in the world is a distinct personality, and should be treated just the same as human beings. It's obvious when you look in their face that there is emotion behind those eyes, and it's tragic that this fact is overlooked in so many circumstances…


I'd like to share some of my favorite moments here. My all time best moment was when I realized that the monkeys were ignoring me.
I could go through morning walkthrough, and instead of moving from where they were to display, they just went about their business as if I wasn't even there, even the tamarins! I am so grateful to have gained the trust of these amazing animals to the point where I can calm them down just with the sound of my voice.


Another favorite moment was getting to see Fern and Xy go outside and see the sun for the first time. I'll never forget the first rain they had, where Xy was outside hanging upside down from the mesh just feeling the rain on her face. And being able to witness Pacey's amazing rehabilitation has been an eye-opening experience. He has gone from a super anxious monkey who is fixated on people to having a crush on another monkey! These are the kinds of things that make sanctuaries like this so important: giving monkeys who have been in bad circumstances, through no fault of their own, the chance to be real monkeys. I am forever grateful to have been able to be a part of it, and am comforted by the fact that these monkeys will continue to be well taken care of. Thank you to everyone who has been a part of my life here, and I can't thank the monkeys enough for just being them. I will miss seeing them every day and hearing their calls in the morning. I will miss getting a little "hello" chirp when I pass by. But these monkeys have made such an impression on me, and I know I will always carry each and every one of them with me.”

New Interns:

Two New Interns will be arriving in Late July! We’ve had several very qualified Intern applicants over the last few months. The Board has selected two excellent candidates. Cheryl is coming to Maui from England and Lisa will be traveling from Texas. Cheryl has a Bachelor’s Degree in Applied Animal Studies and has worked rehabilitating Vervet monkeys in South Africa. Lisa has a B.S. in Biology and has worked with 52 exotic big cats in a sanctuary environment, provided care for a variety of birds at the Dallas Zoo, and assisted with avian rehabilitation at the Texas State Aquarium. She writes about her acceptance as a PPS Intern: “You never know when the opportunity of a lifetime will appear, but I’m so thankful it did.” We are very thankful too and excited to welcome our two exceptional new Interns!

CONTINUING EDUCATION

Special Topic- Intern Dana:


Ryland’s Marmosets and Tamarins, Systematics, Behavior and Ecology


Chapter 5: Comparative Aspects of the Social Suppression of Reproduction in Female Marmosets and Tamarins

Marmosets and Tamarins have a unique adaptation when it comes to reproduction: only one female breeds in any single social group. This reproductive specialization is one of the most studied topics about the Callitrichidae. The dominant female in each group is the only breeding female, and she actively maintains her dominance to ensure that she can continue having offspring. There are a few theories about how social suppression of ovulation works for different species:

Common Marmoset (C. jacchus)
•Dominant female only active breeding female
•Suppressed ovulation in other females is due to suppressed gonadotrophin secretion from the anterior pituitary gland - this means that pheromones given off from the dominant female are probably what inhibits the ovulation of other females in her group.
•Single females removed from the dominant female ovulated 10-11 days after separation. If they remained in scent contact, this ovulation was delayed to 31-32 days.

Cotton-top Tamarin (Saguinus oedipus)
•Similar to Common Marmoset
•Only 50% females had suppressed ovulation
•Cycles returned immediately following removal from dominant and placement alone.
•Conception occurred on 2nd cycle following removal from dominant female and placement with male.

Saddle-back Tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis)
•Suppression of ovarian cycles was also found in subordinate daughter saddlebacks.
•There haven’t been as many studies regarding saddleback ovulation suppression, but pheromones are the most likely cause.

In summary, there are three likely advantages for the extreme suppression of reproduction among subordinate female callitrichid monkeys. The first is that subordinate females may benefit from putting off the departure from their social group because of various difficulties; it is hard to establish a separate breeding group in a different location that contains enough resources, and it can be even more difficult to try and establish dominancy within an already formed social group. The second cause has to do with the communal rearing system used by callitrichids to raise the offspring of the breeding female. The dominant female requires help from non-breeding monkeys to rear her offspring, thus maximizing the chances of the babies surviving. Therefore, “helper” females cannot breed during the same time, because they will probably not be able to compete against the dominant female for the necessary ‘helpers’ to raise her own offspring. Lastly, the young non-breeding females need to gain experience in the infant caretaking so that they may eventually be successful mothers.

-Rylands, A. B. Marmosets and Tamarins. Systematics, Behavior, and Ecology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993.

We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 74 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and smugglers. Here they can heal, form families, and live free from exploitation.

“Our task must be to free ourselves from the prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty.” — Albert Einstein

This Blog and its content is copyright of Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc.—
© Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc., 2009. All rights reserved.
Any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited other than the following:
you may print or download to a local hard disk extracts for your personal and non-commercial use only
you may copy the content to individual third parties for their personal use, but only if you acknowledge the website as the source of the material
You may not, except with our express written permission, distribute or commercially exploit the content. Nor may you transmit it or store it in any other website or other form of electronic retrieval system.

Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 2, Issue 4, Part 3

CONTINUING EDUCATION


Special Topic Robin- Feeding Behaviors in Spider Monkeys


Feeding Behaviors in Monkeys and Humans Have Ancient, Shared Roots,
Bolivian Rainforest Study Suggests

A recent study found, surprisingly, that spider monkeys control their diet in a similar way to humans, which is contrary to previous thought. Most monkeys are opportunistic feeders; this means that they will eat as much of a food resource as possible when they happen upon it (e.g. a mango tree full of mangos). Spider monkeys, however, have been found to tightly regulate their protein intake, regardless of seasonal food availability. This eating style has been linked with obesity in humans, and could prove a valuable finding in dealing with animals in captivity.

In this study, Dr. Annika Felton took detailed records of 15 individual monkeys’ movements and eating habits in the Bolivian rainforest. These types of studies are not usually done in such a thorough way; past studies usually collect averages for entire groups of animals. This means that Dr. Felton was able to collect more accurate data and get a clearer picture of the spider monkeys’ diets. Dr. Felton found that the pattern of nutrient intake by spider monkeys was almost identical to that of humans, even though spider monkeys are frugivorous and humans are omnivorous.

In humans, ingesting small amounts of protein and large amounts of carbohydrates and fats can cause obesity. Adjusting the diet can alleviate this condition, and would work the same way for animals in captivity. It is interesting that humans and spider monkeys were found to share similar nutritional intakes, as this would mean that the evolutionary origins of such patterns might be much older than previously thought (i.e. the Paleolithic Era, 2.4 million to 10,000 years ago), as humans and spider monkeys are not very closely related (New World Monkeys split from Old World Monkeys 40 million years ago). However, this might be due to convergent evolution, which means that each species developed the same trait independently of one another.

While figs made up the majority of the diet, the monkeys were found to eat 105 different fruits and vegetables, with the rare supplement of insects. Their protein intake remained constant regardless of the amount of food consumed, and the carbohydrate intake varied widely (if there was more sweet, ripe fruit, they would consume more in a day). To maintain a constant protein intake, the monkeys would eat more of a fruit if it was low in protein, and less of a fruit if it was high in protein. The detailed list of foods eaten that was gathered in this study will prove very valuable for the conservation of spider monkeys in the wild. This is important because the species of fig tree that makes up the majority of the monkeys’ diet is currently being cut down for timber. Because this information is now known, steps can be taken to conserve needed portions of forest for the spider monkeys.

-Oxford University Press (2009, May 20). Feeding Behaviors In Monkeys And Humans Have Ancient, Shared Roots, Bolivian Rainforest Study Suggests. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 21, 2010, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/05/090519214940.htm

Special Topic-Erin: Species Spotlight


Black-handed Spider Monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi)

Spider Monkeys get their name from their appearance, with extremely long arms, legs and tails they resemble a spider. Pacific Primate Sanctuary is currently home to two Black-handed Spider Monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi). These lanky monkeys are one of the largest New World Primates, often weighing up to 20 pounds. They have tan to reddish bodies, with darker hands and feet and small heads. Their prehensile tail is quite impressive, with a palm like padded area for extra grip; their tails can easily support their entire body weight. While their feet are similar to most other primates with an opposable thumb, their hands are quite unique. Spider monkeys have four long fingers, and no thumb on their hands, which makes their hands hook-like. Their long arms, hook like hands, and flexible shoulder joints allow Spider Monkeys to brachiate, or move across branches and ropes by swinging arm over arm. Brachiation is a rare type of movement, seen only in Gibbons and Spider Monkeys.

Black-handed Spider Monkeys are found along the coasts of Mexico, through Central America and as far south as Northwestern Columbia. They live in mature rainforest and montane forests (forests at higher elevations). They are active during the day, and live in the trees. They spend the majority of their time in the upper levels of the forest, mainly in the canopy but will also use the middle and lower strata. They forage in the high canopy, but tend to travel lower down where the branches are thicker.

Spider Monkeys are highly social, living in groups of 20-30 individuals. These groups are multi-male and multi-female usually with more females in the group than males. Females will leave the group at puberty to find a new group, while the males generally stick together for their entire lives. This is very rare among primates. Another rare trait of Spider Monkeys is the presence of a Lead Female who directs the group, and is in charge of finding food and planning the foraging route each day. If there is not enough food for the entire group, they will split into smaller subgroups for foraging. Spider Monkeys are highly frugivorous (fruit eaters) with 90% of their diet coming from fruits and nuts. They also eat leaves, flowers, and occasionally insects.

Spider Monkeys are highly intelligent, and have a brain that is twice the size of Howler Monkeys with an equivalent body size. Examples of their highly developed intelligence include their complex social system and their knowledge of over 150 species of plants that are used as food.

Black-handed Spider Monkeys are currently listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Unfortunately, their numbers are currently declining. The major threat to these animals is habitat destruction, and they are also subject to pet trafficking in some areas.

-Gorog, A. 2002. "Ateles geoffroyi" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 26, 2010 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Ateles_geoffroyi.html

-Cuarón, A.D., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C. 2008. Ateles geoffroyi. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.1. . Downloaded on 26 March 2010.

-Spider monkey. (2010, March 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19:35, March 26, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spider_monkey&oldid=348506024

Rowe, Noel. 1996. The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates / Noel Rowe; foreword by Jane Goodall; introduction by Russell A. Mittermeier, Pogonias Press, East Hampton, N.Y.



We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 70 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and smugglers. Here they can heal, form families, and live free from exploitation.
You and I are the force for transformation in the world. We are the consciousness that will define the nature of the reality we are moving into. — Ram Dass


This Blog and its content is copyright of Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc.—
© Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc., 2009. All rights reserved.
Any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited other than the following:
you may print or download to a local hard disk extracts for your personal and non-commercial use only
you may copy the content to individual third parties for their personal use, but only if you acknowledge the website as the source of the material
You may not, except with our express written permission, distribute or commercially exploit the content. Nor may you transmit it or store it in any other website or other form of electronic retrieval system.

Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 2, Issue 2, Part 3

CONTINUING EDUCATION


Special Topic: Intern Dana- Chapter Summary


Ryland’s Marmosets and Tamarins
Systematics, Behavior and Ecology


Chapter 1 Summary

Ryland begins by discussing the taxonomy and classification of marmosets and tamarins, which is still under considerable debate. Most of the controversy surrounds the marmosets (genus Callithrix.) There are multiple ways that taxonomists have classified the callitrichids, especially at the species/subspecies level.
The callitrichid geographic distributions are still poorly understood, and there isn’t much detailed information on the conservation status of many of the marmosets and tamarins. The most information available relates to the most critically endangered species.

Ryland goes on to discuss each species separately in chapter one, and describes their geographic distributions as well as their current status in the wild. Species living at PPS include:

Callithrix jaccus - Common or white tufted eared marmoset. Endemic to Brazil. Widespread and common in many localities, and even replacing other Callithrix species when it has been introduced. However, populations are declining due to habitat destruction.
Callithrix penicillata - Black-tufted-ear marmoset. Endemic to Brazil. Very wide distribution, but still faces habitat destruction. C.penicillata is taking hold and probably replacing other species in numerous locations.
Callithrix kuhli - Weid’s marmoset. Endemic to the Atlantic coastal forest of Brazil. Very abundant and adaptable, but threatened by widespread forest destruction.
Saguinus fuscicollis - Saddleback tamarin - Endemic to Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. Regarded as common in Peru and parts of Brazil.
Saguinus oedipus - Cotton-top tamarin. Endemic to northwestern Colombia. 75% of the original distribution of S.oedipus has been cleared for agriculture and pasture. On the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals - Endangered.

Chapter 2 Summary

There are many proposed taxonomic schemes for how to classify Callitrichids. Charles Snowden argues that vocalizations may be a useful tool for figuring out some of these phylogenetic relationships. Studies have shown that you can differentiate a species depending on subtle aspects of their long calls. Snowden and others used a spectogram to analyze the frequencies and durations of vocalizations.

Long calls have many purposes, like defending a group against intruders of the same species, maintaining cohesion of the group, making contact to an animal separated from the group, or possibly to attract a mate. The calls might also have to do with the monkey’s location in the forest. In the Amazon, there is a great deal of competing noise from insects, birds, and other sounds, so a higher frequency range for vocal communication may be beneficial. Therefore, callitrichid long calls appear to be an adaptation to environmental noise.

References:

Rylands, A. B. Marmosets and Tamarins. Systematics, Behaviour, and Ecology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Special Topic-Erin: Species Spotlight


White-Throated Capuchin Cebus capucinus

Capuchin Monkeys get their name from their unique coloration, and its resemblance to Capuchin Monks. Capuchins have a black cap on the top of their head, which resembles the “capuche” or cowl worn by Franciscan Capuchin Monks. White-Throated Capuchins also have white faces, throats and shoulders, with the rest of their bodies being black. They have opposable thumbs on both hands and feet, and a prehensile tail. They are sexually dimorphic (males look different from females), with the males having a receding hairline, larger canine teeth, and a slightly larger body size.

White-Throated Capuchins are found in a large portion of Central America, and in a small part or South America. They are they only species of Capuchins that are found in Central America. These monkeys can be found in a wide variety of forests, including evergreen (trees that keep their foliage year round), deciduous (trees that lose their foliage for part of the year), mangrove (trees grow in saline coastal areas) and montane forests (forests above 1,200 ft elevation).

Capuchins live in troops of up to 39 monkeys, with more females than males in each group. There is one Alpha Male (dominant) in each group, and the males defend the territory, the larger body size and tooth size of the males helps them to provide better protection. They are diurnal (active during the day) and arboreal (they live in the trees). When the males mature, they leave to find a group of their own, but occasionally remain solitary for a while before finding another group. Females usually spend their entire life with the troop they were born into. White-Throated Capuchins are found in the same area as Black-Handed Spider Monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi), and are known to associate with this species in the wild. They have been known to travel with, and even groom each other!

Capuchins are considered by many to be the most intelligent of the New World Monkeys. Two great examples of Capuchin intelligence are tool use and fur rubbing. Capuchins have been observed using rocks as a “stone and anvil” to crack open nuts, and have used sticks to defend themselves against snakes. Capuchins use plants with antibacterial and insect-repelling properties. They pound and bite the fruits to extract the oils, and then rub them all over their bodies. Here at Pacific Primate Sanctuary, we have 4 White-Throated Capuchins, and we have seen them engage in fur rubbing on many occasions.

References:

Causado, J., Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C. 2008. Cebus capucinus. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. . Downloaded on 25 February 2010

Long, J. and K. Francl. 2009. "Cebus capucinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 25, 2010 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cebus_capucinus.html.

Rowe, Noel. 1996. The pictorial guide to the living primates / Noel Rowe; foreword by Jane Goodall ; introduction by Russell A. Mittermeier Pogonias Press, East Hampton, N.Y.

White-headed Capuchin. (2010, February 14). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 08:07, February 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=White-headed_Capuchin&oldid=344026624

We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 70 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and smugglers. Here they can heal, form families, and live free from exploitation.

“Nature does nothing uselessly.” –Aristotle 


This Blog and its content is copyright of Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc.—
© Pacific Primate Sanctuary, Inc., 2009. All rights reserved.
Any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited other than the following:
you may print or download to a local hard disk extracts for your personal and non-commercial use only
you may copy the content to individual third parties for their personal use, but only if you acknowledge the website as the source of the material
You may not, except with our express written permission, distribute or commercially exploit the content. Nor may you transmit it or store it in any other website or other form of electronic retrieval system.

Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 2, Issue 2, Part 3

CONTINUING EDUCATION

Special Topic: Erin- Species Spotlight
White-Tufted-Ear Marmoset Callithrix jacchus

The White tufted ear marmoset is a small-bodied New World Primate, with mottled gray fur, and large white ear tufts. Their faces are quite pale, but will darken with exposure to the sun. These tiny primates weigh under a pound, and typically live around 12 years. Pacific Primate Sanctuary is currently home to 30 White tufted eared marmosets.

These marmosets are endemic to Brazil. They are found in the northeastern and central forests from the Atlantic coast to as far inland as the Rio Grande (see the red area on the map). The forests they live in are characterized by having an abundance of gum-producing trees. A home range must have at least 50 gum trees to support these gum-loving primates.

White tufted eared marmosets are diurnal (active during the day) and arboreal (live in the trees). They live in extended family groups with all the members helping to rear the offspring. Additionally, large groups provide protection by helping with territorial defense. They tend to be most active in the mornings and evenings, and spend much of the daytime hours grooming and taking naps.

Marmosets have several unique adaptations. For one thing, they have claw-like nails, whereas most primates have flat nails. Marmosets spend much time clinging vertically to tree trunks, the claw-like nails allows them to accomplish this. The reason for clinging to the trunks has to do with their major food source; White-tufted-ear Marmosets are exudate (gum from trees) feeders. They cling to the side of the trunk, and then use their specialized teeth (their lower incisors are the same length as their canines!) to gouge holes in the tree. This causes the tree to produce an abundance of nourishing exudates! The marmosets also have a special digestive system to help process this particular source of nourishment. These special features provide the marmosets with a unique and abundant food source that allows them to live in large family groups with little or no competition.

Resources:
-Cawthon Lang KA. 2005 May 18. Primate Factsheets: Common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology. . Accessed 2010 January 29.
- Rowe, Noel. 1996. The pictorial guide to the living primates / Noel Rowe; foreword by Jane Goodall; introduction by Russell A. Mittermeier Pogonias Press, East Hampton, N.Y.

Intern Alli Special Topic: A Tale of Two Monkeys

Prior to coming to the Sanctuary, Intern Alli gained experience with marmosets by working as a caretaker in a research laboratory. She then came to PPS as a resident Intern, and is already entering into the final month of her one-year internship. Through this experience of working with the same species in opposing settings, Alli has a very unique perspective. She is able to share this perspective with us in the following, very moving, essay.

A Tale of Two Monkeys: Brenda and Charlotte

Anyone who has walked the corridor at Pacific Primate Sanctuary has known and loved Brenda. She is a 15-year-old female White tufted ear marmoset with a sweet demeanor, a love for the outdoors, and her devoted mate named Bruno (a once solitary male who she helped socialize). She is the oldest female monkey in the corridor, although her activity level would tell you otherwise, and she spends as much time outside with Bruno as possible. As well as we all know Brenda here at PPS, many people don’t know that she was born “CJ0396” at a large, well-known national research facility in the Midwest. Why she was lucky enough to be sent to Pacific Primate Sanctuary at 6 months old is unknown. Up until January of 2009, she had lived a parallel, but completely opposite life to another female marmoset born in the same year at the same research facility.

Brenda in her lush greenroom at PPS

A young White tufted ear marmoset at a research facility

“CJ0130”, or Charlotte as her caregivers knew her, was nearly 15-years-old already when I first met her while working at the lab. She stuck out like a sore thumb in a room of 20 marmosets because of her missing ear tuft, her calm manner, and her sweet face. She was a favorite among the animal techs and vet staff alike because she had out-lived almost all of the monkeys born within 5 years of her. She had been through countless studies, behavioral and invasive, and had managed to survive to old age (despite the missing ear tuft). Grapes were her favorite fruit, since they were easy to juice with her uneven teeth, and I would often sneak her and her partner an extra grape at snack whenever I could. And I was there that day in January when she was anesthetized and brought to the necropsy room to be euthanized because her weight had dropped below 300 grams. It will remain a mystery how two monkeys born in the same year at the same national research facility could live out two completely different lives nearly 6,000 miles apart, however they didn’t have to be so different. While an animal’s life in a research laboratory versus a sanctuary is fundamentally different because the purpose, goals, and objectives of the two institutions are diametrically opposed- an animal’s life in a lab can be greatly enhanced by making small changes in daily care.

In a Biomedical Research Facility, the main goal of colony management is to provide the ideal research subject to potential researchers. The mental health of the subject is not necessarily always a factor as long as they are physically “healthy”. The more “healthy” subjects a facility can provide, the more researchers they will attract and therefore, the more money they can bring in. It is for this reason that White tufted ear marmosets, at a large lab in the Midwest, are kept in small metal portables lining every room. Within each portable is a metal carrier and two wooden dowels used as perches. Enrichment is given once a week in the form of treats hidden in plastic toys, frozen cubes, or cereal stuck in toilet paper rolls. Because of the smaller size of the enclosures, adolescent monkeys are pulled from family groups in order to make room for newer siblings. And finally, because a colony must be cared for as a whole using “herd health”, marmosets at this particular lab are euthanized when their weight drops below 300 grams. These types of policies allow a research facility to operate with maximum output (more monkeys) with minimal cost (smaller housing, and little daily enrichment). These facilities operate in this way because their definition of “humane” colony management is based on and serves their goals and financial objectives.

Charlotte’s life and death were a result of this distorted philosophy. I remember about a month before Charlotte was euthanized I was sitting with the Associate Director of Veterinary Services, who was inquiring about my upcoming internship at PPS. I told him how excited I was and I asked him if there was any way that I could take Charlotte with me, since she was no longer considered an ideal candidate for research. He laughed the question off and said there was no way a monkey her age would ever manage the trip successfully. A month later, I sat in an anteroom and watched as Charlotte went to sleep for the last time. I couldn’t help but wonder, if Charlotte had made it to the sanctuary and only lived one day in a lush green enclosure, wouldn’t that have been better than bleeding out in the necropsy room of a research facility? And more so, how would it have been a loss to the research facility?

In a sanctuary setting, like that at Pacific Primate Sanctuary, the main goal is rehabilitation and restoration of the monkeys’ birthright. Monkeys are provided food, shelter, and enrichment by volunteers, but are otherwise “free” to do what monkeys should do. They spend their days foraging in their jungle enclosures, grooming family members and partners, basking in the sunlight, and playing in their natural worlds. Monkeys at Pacific Primate Sanctuary always have access to browse or greenery in which to manipulate, tear, rip apart, and play with. In fact an adolescent male was once observed using a large green leaf as a trampoline, bouncing from the leaf to a branch above. Most importantly, monkeys at Pacific Primate Sanctuary are given individualized care addressing each of the monkey’s needs. They are not euthanized when their weight drops. In fact, there are a handful of White tufted ear marmosets (mostly females) at Pacific Primate Sanctuary who have lived almost their entire lives weighing less than 300 grams and are healthy and active- Brenda being one of them.

Brenda arrived at Pacific Primate Sanctuary on March 29, 1995 along with six other White tufted ear marmosets from the same research facility. She adjusted extremely quickly to sanctuary living, having been sent at a young age. She was paired with Bruno, a lone male sent from a different research facility. He was un-socialized and didn’t share food well. With Brenda’s patience and a caregiver’s gentle 3 month conditioning, Bruno soon became an ideal mate. (This time consuming endeavor might not be pursued in the laboratory where he would have lived a solitary existence.) While he is still enthusiastic about his food, he no longer hoards or monopolizes the food bowls. He now loves to groom and play-wrestle with Brenda and they are rarely seen apart. Brenda has had two serious health issues that have resulted in her having to be to be moved from her enclosure into the infirmary for intensive, personalized care. This occurred once in December of 2004, when she was treated for a GI issue, and again this year when we found she had tooth infections. Both times she was cared for until she was well again and returned to Bruno as good as new. Even though she has lived almost her entire life weighing less than 300 grams, her weight is still monitored very closely and she is given extras (avocado, sweet potato, Nutrical, oatmeal, etc.) in her breakfast daily to keep her calorie intake high. This type of specialized care is one of the main reasons she has lived such a long, high quality life. If Brenda were living in a research laboratory, she would have been euthanized years ago.

Because of the fundamental differences between a biomedical research facility and a sanctuary, the lives of the monkeys housed in each could never be the same. However, there can be vast improvements in the living situation of those housed in research facilities that could even be cost effective to the labs. First, implementing weekly environmental enrichment in the form of natural greenery, in Hawaii we use Ti leaves, palm leaves, hibiscus flowers, etc., can elicit more natural behaviors and has also been found to be a way for the monkeys to relieve stress. It can be difficult to understand just how enriching foliage can be until you’ve watched a monkey tear it apart/carry it around/manipulate it for the first time. The cost of this type of enrichment could be kept down by making a partnership with a university greenhouse.

Another beneficial practice would be allowing the monkeys to live with their natural families for a longer period of time. While I recognize that there are limits to how many monkeys can live in a small laboratory enclosure at once, I have also seen first hand the benefit of allowing offspring to help rear their younger siblings. The first set of marmoset babies born while I was at the research facility died within two days of each other because the mother had never reared infants before (siblings or her own). Having experienced mothers and fathers would decrease the amount of infant mortality in a laboratory setting.

Finally, implementing a more tailored herd health practice (rather than just euthanizing all monkeys at a set weight) would allow for a more diverse and less homogeneous colony of primates. Dr. Cathy Johnson-Delaney, President of the Association of Exotic Mammal Veterinarians, established an alternative policy for a lab colony that catered more to each individual marmoset’s weight. Extreme illness was defined as a monkey losing 15-20% of their adult body weight. This way, monkeys who usually balance around 300 grams are not euthanized because they lost 10 grams (which would only be 3% of their adult body weight, but would make them eligible for euthanization at the Midwest lab.) Another option would be sending those monkeys considered less ideal for experimentation (i.e. under 300 grams) to sanctuaries where they can have more personalized care. The research industry might also consider that euthanizing a monkey in a lab setting can be extremely costly. There is the cost of drugs to first sedate a primate, then the cost of the personnel to perform the necropsy and necropsy report, then the cost of blood tests and tissue tests (depending on why the monkey needed euthanasia), and finally the monkey must be properly disposed of. These are all costs that could be avoided if the euthanasia is deemed unnecessary in the first place.

It is my personal hope that one day primate research will be a thing of the past and will soon be considered an UNnecessary evil. That day, unfortunately, is not today. So instead we need to cooperatively work towards improving the lives of those still living in a world of metal bars and constant fear. I am extremely thankful for each and every monkey that Pacific Primate Sanctuary has been able to save over the past 30 years, however, I am constantly thinking about the hundreds of thousands of primates still living compromised lives in biomedical research facilities across the world. We need to once again expand our philosophies, but this time to accommodate a species other than our own. In fact, Dr. Jane Goodall considers this the next step in human evolution. She writes:
"If only we can overcome cruelty, to human and animal, with love and compassion we shall stand at the threshold of a new era in human moral and spiritual evolution and realize, at last, our most unique quality: humanity."

We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 70 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and smugglers. Here they can heal, form families, and live free from exploitation.

"An animal's eyes have the power to speak a great language."
~ Martin Buber


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