Happy Holidays from the Monkeys and their Caregivers at
Pacific Primate Sanctuary!
![]()
Pacific Primate Sanctuary!
As 2013 draws to a close, we look back with joy and satisfaction at the many wonderful things we were able to accomplish over the past year. With the help of our generous supporters, the monkeys have been able to live in peace and safety, free from exploitation, in green environments that allow them to express their natural behaviors. 
Over the last year, we have had the privilege of working with many extraordinary and dedicated Interns. The mutually beneficial PPS Resident Internship Program provides a unique and valuable learning experience for the Interns, and allows us to continue to provide quality care to the fragile animals here. We are so grateful to Joani, who donated funding for this vital program. With her help, the PPS Interns and our COO can continue their meaningful service at Pacific Primate Sanctuary, as stewards of our precious planet and the caregivers of the beings we share it with.
We have also been able to make housing improvements for the monkeys this year. The marmosets and tamarins were given new sleeping cubes, which were custom designed using thick, canvas and hidden seams. We also installed rain gutters on the Sanctuary Extension. The new sleeping cubes and rain gutters have allowed all the monkeys to stay warm and dry, protected from the heavy winds and rains. We constructed and ins
talled many new jungle walkways, so that our elderly population can continue to live in outdoor enclosures, without a risk of falling or slipping. Spider Monkeys, Carlos and Montana, who spent 15 years in a tourist attraction, received new branches and fire hose “vines” throughout their 40 foot long enclosure. The Spider Monkeys and the Capuchin monkeys also got brand new hammocks, and enjoy spending time resting in them. Thank you for helping us provide for the monkeys in 2013.
![]()
![]()
Important PPS Projects Planned for 2014
The Sanctuary is in need of funds to expand the Capuchin enclosures, so that Miracle and Prospero will have twice as much living space to explore.
Additionally, we find that we must create visual barriers throughout the Corridor and Extension buildings, so the monkeys can live in harmony, without any distress from neighboring individuals. Your donations will allow us to purchase the supplies necessary to proceed with these vital projects.
Please contribute what you can.
Donate now at:
http://www.pacificprimate.org/help-donate.htm
The Season of Giving
The end of the year is upon us; it is a time of year to celebrate with friends and family and remember the year past- it is a time when joy, compassion, and the spirit of generosity abound. Below are ways you can help Pacific Primate Sanctuary during this time of giving and goodwill.
![]()
Gift Contributions
![]()
Many of us do not value the commercialism of the holiday buying binge and are searching for truly meaningful ways to give to our family and friends. We would like to offer a unique gift giving opportunity:
Gift Contributions can be made to Pacific Primate Sanctuary in the name of anyone on your holiday list. Your Gift Recipients will receive a beautiful Contribution Certificate showing you have made a donation in their name, along with information about PPS. This thoughtful and significant gift helps to feed and care for threatened, endangered and distressed primates. Please visit our website for details: http://www.pacificprimate.org/help.htm
Donating to Pacific Primate Sanctuary can be as simple as doing an Internet search! Visit GoodSearch.com and designate Pacific Primate Sanctuary as your charity of choice, and get started using this wonderful program. Each time you do a search using GoodSearch, a small contribution will be made to PPS!
GoodShop
Use GoodShop.com for all your online shopping. After designating Pacific Primate Sanctuary as your nonprofit of choice, you can shop at more than 900 top online retailers and a substantial percentage of your purchases will automatically be donated to the Sanctuary! GoodShop also provides many valuable coupons to use towards your purchases. When you select a store, you will automatically be redirected to a coupon page for that store. PLEASE use GoodShop this holiday season!
GoodSearch offers many other ways to generate donations for Pacific Primate Sanctuary, including GoodDining, GoodTravel, GoodOffers and more. Visit their website to find out the details: http://www.goodsearch.com/
Give the Gift of Your Service and Volunteer Your Time
We are currently in need of more local volunteers! We need Animal Caregivers, Handy people, and Gardeners/Landscapers. Retirees are welcome. If you live on Maui and are interested in becoming one of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s Angels, by volunteering your time and skills, please e-mail pps@pacificprimate.org
“Some people give time, some money, some their skills and connections, some literally give their life's blood. But everyone has something to give.” — Barbara Bush
Our Wish List
You can contribute to the monkeys by donating much needed items, including:
- commercial power washer - sewing machine
- heavy-duty weed eater - construction tools
- gardening supplies & equipment - pillowcases
- pet carriers - ride-on lawnmower
![]()
How to Donate Directly
We deeply appreciate your continued partnership. You, and your family and friends, can make tax-deductible donations to the Sanctuary on our Website: www.pacificprimate.org and on FaceBook, using PayPal, or by sending a check to:
Pacific Primate Sanctuary
500-A Haloa Road
Haiku, HI 96708
Your contributions allow us to continue our life-saving work,
and your partnership gives us the faith to carry-on.
This year have a green holiday by utilizing these simple eco-friendly tips:
Buy Local- Purchase your holiday food items from local farmer’s markets, the food will taste fresher and you will reduce your carbon footprint by not purchasing items that have been shipped across the country. Support local businesses by finding Christmas gifts locally.
Make or Reuse Decorations- Rather than purchasing all new decorations, spend time with your family making decorations! Make a tradition of reusing family or vintage decorations.
Send E-cards or Recycled cards-This year, send E-Cards online and completely cut out the paper, while also saving money on stamps and cards. You can also find beautiful recycled cards, and even cards that have seeds in the paper, which can be planted!
Better Gift Wrap- Use recycled wrapping paper, or find re-useable items to wrap with. Re-useable shopping bags, decorative boxes, or scarves are all beautiful wrapping options.
This information was found on the following site, which has additional ideas:
https://power2switch.com/blog/15-go-green-this-holiday-season-simple-eco-friendly-holiday-tips/
Welcome to our New Intern, Katie
Katie arrived on November 7, 2013 to begin her year-long Resident Internship. She has a degree in Anthropology, and has taken courses in primate behavior. Katie has experience working with traumatized dogs, cats and horses at an animal sanctuary, but this is her first time caring for primates. The monkeys have taken to her gentle nature immediately. We are delighted to have Katie on Team PPS!
In her acceptance letter, Katie writes:
I am deeply humbled by the opportunity to accept a resident internship at PPS. I feel in my bones that I belong in a place where I can help soothe the wounds suffered at the feet of humans. Thank you for welcoming me there…
I am excited to learn the monkeys’ ways of knowing the world, to actively help rather than lament, and to more fully appreciate the power of compassion... I am so grateful for the chance to not only explore my interests but to live in a community that shares my values. In this special meeting place of ideals and ambition, of intellect and emotion, I am hopeful that I have something important to offer others. I am devoted to contribute all that I can to this cause….
Today marks a strange place in Natural History, where species once capable of the profound autonomy and freedom bestowed upon wild creatures now rely upon human beings for survival. With this tragic transition comes a tremendous responsibility. Perhaps, for those fortunate enough to access the secret worlds of other species, this modern juncture in human-animal relations represents a great privilege: to learn from other beings in preciously close proximity. I believe PPS offers such an opportunity, and for that I am endlessly grateful. Where we can live peacefully beside other creatures, and perhaps see our reflections in monkey faces, we can truly feel why humans should be proud to be animals.
Intern Katie: Special Topic
The social organization of marmosets: a critical evaluation of recent concepts
In the wild, marmoset and tamarin (callitrichid) groups are typically structured to support a single reproductively monogamous pair. This pair represents the dominant member of either sex and, though each may maintain sexual access to subordinate group members, they are generally the only two to successfully produce offspring. Duties involved in rearing young, specifically infant carrying, are shared with lower-ranking individuals. This allows non-breeding members to increase their inclusive reproductive fitness, as subordinate group members are typically the offspring of the dominant pair or otherwise closely related. When individuals do emigrate from their natal group, often as a result of aggression between siblings, they commonly establish new groups and home ranges near to that of their original families. It is also plausible for such individuals to join an existing group, though the likelihood of being accepted into a group of non-relatives is extremely small. Interactions between groups are rarely amicable, especially between unrelated members of the same sex. Therefore, callitrichids depend on their ability to recognize genetic relatives both to avoid incest and in navigating intergroup dynamics.
Family dynamics likewise play a crucial role in determining intragroup (within the group) social hierarchies. Alpha status is typically occupied by the group’s founders, or those who proved dominance through physical aggression as the group was formed. The second-ranking female tends to be the dominant female’s oldest daughter. Often, these females experience more regular ovulation and are less prone to unsuccessful pregnancies, difficulty lactating, and other reproductive challenges. Reproductive monogamy is also secured by mate-guarding in the dominant pair, who remain in relatively close spatial proximity to one another throughout long-lasting partnerships. Lower-ranking relatives and unrelated group members are socially marginalized, but participate in group protection as well as caring for infants. Interestingly, females may carry the offspring of two fathers at once, which increases the evolutionary advantage to sharing parental duties for subordinates.
Captive groups largely function similarly, with the notable exceptions of human participation in group formation and environmental factors. As in wild settings, the majority of social tension occurs between siblings, which can result in expulsion from the group. Expulsions of dominant or parent individuals are rare, and virtually never involve the support of the individual’s mate. Large captive groups comprised only of siblings have proved to be unstable, involving failure to establish a social hierarchy, and far more exhibitions of self-grooming than social grooming. Although cooperation, reciprocity, and altruistic participation in caring for young are core aspects of callitrichid social structure, and single pairs are practically never seen living without a group in the wild, lone pairs can function successfully in captive settings.
Many researchers postulate that the function of callitrichids’ unique social organization, is necessitated by the specific pressures of living in the wild. For instance, subordinate individuals expend energy supporting another’s offspring in order to secure their place in the group, and larger group sizes may serve to increase protection from predators. Similarly, because infant carrying reduces one’s ability to forage and travel quickly between food sources, sharing this duty presents an important means of propagating the species. This is especially true because callitrichids are almost always born as twins, and the body weight of infants makes up an unusually high proportion of adult body size. That being said, dominant pairs in the wild almost exclusively care for infants during the early stages of weaning, and mothers only accept help from the select few nearest to her in social rank. In captivity, where food is predictably provided and easily accessible, the need for group infant rearing or carrying diminishes greatly. Other theories suggest that group rearing is a form of social learning essential to successful infant care in subsequent generations. However, wild alpha females typically reject the participation of those without experience, and exhibit very high success rates in single pair families in captivity. Due to their favored social position enjoyed by the alpha pair, those who assist in rearing young in the wild may benefit by one day inheriting dominance. Once again, this advantage does not apply to captive settings, where groups are so largely determined by humans.
![]()
Ultimately, these findings support the success of single-pair family groups at PPS. This dynamic not only reduces the risk of eviction from the group tremendously, but also ensures less stress to the animals by reducing the likelihood of competition for rank, social peripheralization of subordinates by the alpha pair, and sibling tension. Because rejected group members cannot choose to abandon their group’s home range or establish a new group in captivity, this restricted group size also helps ensure that the monkeys at PPS continue to recognize their enclosures as their territory.
-Rylands, A.B. Marmosets and Tamarins. Systematics, Behavior, and Ecology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Special Topic: Intern Rachel
Summary: Chapters 4 “Natural History, Time Course, and Pathogenesis of Idiopathic Colitis in Cotton-Top Tamarin” and Chapter 7 “Extraintestinal Manifestations of Cotton-Top Tamarin Colitis”
The cotton-top tamarin is a species that spontaneously develops colitis in many captive settings. In the particular study presented in this chapter, the spontaneous development of idiopathic ulcerative colitis was investigated. The 6-yr examination of forty 4- to 7-yr-old Cotton-top tamarins at 2 to 3 month intervals has shown that the spontaneous colitis observed resembles the human disease in its course, age dependence, varying periods of exacerbation and remission, and eventual susceptibility of the animal to colon cancer. Considerable animal-to-animal variation existed, as is seen in humans. Active colitis was superimposed upon chronic colitis and occurred either asymptomatically or symptomatically. Severity was measured based on the types and number of inflammatory cells present in the colon. While age had little effect on body weight and stool condition, the severity of the colitis (mild vs. severe) and the duration of the disease dramatically affected both body weight and stool condition. Spontaneous cotton Top Tamarin colitis closely mimics the pathogenesis (origin and development) of the human disease, thus management and treatment options are similar. There is no cure for colitis, so treatment focuses on alleviating the symptoms of the disease.
A feature of tamarin colitis, as well as human ulcerative colitis, is the occurrence of extraintestinal manifestations of the disease including ankylosing spondylitis and peripheral arthropathy (both are forms of chronic inflammation of the joints), iritis (inflammation of the iris of the eye), episcleritis (inflammation in the thin white coating of the eye) and liver diseases (fatty liver, mild periportal chronic inflammation). More rarely, cholangiocarcinoma (bile duct cancer), hepatic abscesses, or cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) are seen.
The cotton-top tamarin tends to develop a non-infective spontaneously occurring colitis, which closely resembles human ulcerative colitis. This chapter discusses a study that evaluated liver and joint disease in cotton top tamarins with colitis. Livers from 100 cotton-top tamarins with ulcerative colitis were examined histological at postmortem; 40 had varied pathology: steatosis-16 (fatty degeneration), hepatitis- 4 (inflammation), and abscess- 4. Four animals had excessive portal fibrosis in the absence of significant inflammation and which resembled sclerosing cholangitis (a disease of the bile ducts that causes inflammation and subsequent obstruction of bile ducts both inside the liver and outside the liver). The findings of sclerosing cholangitis-like liver abnormalities strengthen the role of the Cotton Top Tamarin as a unique animal model of ulcerative colitis. The inflammation of the colon that defines colitis is managed several ways and with varying degrees of success in our tamarins and marmosets. We have used dietary changes, medications and supplements to help alleviate the symptoms associated with the disease.
-Clapp, Neal K..“A Primate Model for the Study of Colitis and Colonic Carcinoma: The Cotton-Top Tamarin”
Special Topic: Intern Shani
Chapter Summary: Communication and the use of the Whinny in Spider Monkeys
Spider monkeys forage in fruit patches that are distributed over large areas. They may spend long amounts of time away from their groups, and because of this their need for communication is high.
Klein and Roosmalen (1987) state that female spider monkeys have an elongated clitoris to leave urine behind for scent communication. Spider monkeys also have sternal secretions, which they mix with saliva using their hands. The hand is then smelled by other individuals after separation from the group. Carlos and Montana often scent mark their hands, then offer the marked hand to us for us to smell! The also smell their hands after they have been touched.
Long distance vocalizations may be the main way a spider monkey can locate group members and maintain their social relationships. Eisenberg (1976) distinguished 13 different vocalizations in a captive study. There are several different vocalizations, but only the whinny has been studied in detail. The most common vocalization is the 'bark', which is a defensive sound emitted when an intruder approaches. The next is the 'growl', which occurs in aroused males. The whinny is the next most common and occurs when an individual is separated from the group.
![]()
The whinny is a series of 2 + 2 rapid rises and falls in pitch about 100ms from peak to peak with a frequency moving from 1000-2300Hz and back again. The sound is achieved by laryngeal oscillation. The whinny is often reciprocated between individuals in neighboring subgroups and can be heard as far as 300m away. The average distance between individuals in the same group is less than 30m but between different subgroups is 170-320m. Therefore the whinny reaches all members of the group and subgroup. Frequency analysis of the whinny shows the recipient of the whinny located 300m from the caller receives much more information than if the recipient is closer. Masataka (1986) studied vocalizations and found they contained information about the caller’s identification. The calls could be differentiated by their acoustic features. Chapman and Weary (1990) found that the first, middle and end arches of the whinny vary considerably between individuals. They also noticed the calls of offspring resemble their mother.
In any primate community, communication performed will have multiple functions. This is because the various recipients will have different relationships with the caller. But what is the function of the whinny? Chapman and Lefebvre (1990) found the whinny is to attract group members to a food source to decrease the predation. They also found high ranking individuals called lower ranking individuals and the frequency of calls increased if the food source was more abundant. Texidor and Byrne (1992) found that whinnys emitted when travelling provoked a more active response, for example the recipient would call back or travel to the caller. Campbell (2008) believes that whinnys maintain contact between individuals in different subgroups. Another theory is that it enables monkeys to distinguish between members and non-group members. There are many theories about the function of the whinny but the only proven fact is that it contains the identity of the caller. Carlos and Montana frequently whinny when their caregivers approach, as well as when they are eating favorite food items.
C.J. Campbell (Ed), Spider Monkeys: Behavior, Ecology and Evolution of the Genus Ateles (pp. 81-109). New York: Cambridge University Press.
![]()
We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for over 50 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and tourist attractions. Here they can heal, form social groups, and live free from exploitation.
The precious partnership of all our supporters
makes what we do possible.
makes what we do possible.
The Sanctuary is in need of funds to expand the Capuchin enclosures, so that Miracle and Prospero will have twice as much living space to explore.Additionally, we find that we must create visual barriers throughout the Corridor and Extension buildings, so the monkeys can live in harmony, without any distress from neighboring individuals. Your donations will allow us to purchase the supplies necessary to proceed with these vital projects.
Please contribute what you can.
Donate now at:
http://www.pacificprimate.org/help-donate.htm
WAYS YOU CAN HELP the MONKEYS at PPS
The Season of Giving
The end of the year is upon us; it is a time of year to celebrate with friends and family and remember the year past- it is a time when joy, compassion, and the spirit of generosity abound. Below are ways you can help Pacific Primate Sanctuary during this time of giving and goodwill.
Gift Contributions
Many of us do not value the commercialism of the holiday buying binge and are searching for truly meaningful ways to give to our family and friends. We would like to offer a unique gift giving opportunity:Gift Contributions can be made to Pacific Primate Sanctuary in the name of anyone on your holiday list. Your Gift Recipients will receive a beautiful Contribution Certificate showing you have made a donation in their name, along with information about PPS. This thoughtful and significant gift helps to feed and care for threatened, endangered and distressed primates. Please visit our website for details: http://www.pacificprimate.org/help.htm
Donating to Pacific Primate Sanctuary can be as simple as doing an Internet search! Visit GoodSearch.com and designate Pacific Primate Sanctuary as your charity of choice, and get started using this wonderful program. Each time you do a search using GoodSearch, a small contribution will be made to PPS!
GoodShop
Use GoodShop.com for all your online shopping. After designating Pacific Primate Sanctuary as your nonprofit of choice, you can shop at more than 900 top online retailers and a substantial percentage of your purchases will automatically be donated to the Sanctuary! GoodShop also provides many valuable coupons to use towards your purchases. When you select a store, you will automatically be redirected to a coupon page for that store. PLEASE use GoodShop this holiday season!
GoodSearch offers many other ways to generate donations for Pacific Primate Sanctuary, including GoodDining, GoodTravel, GoodOffers and more. Visit their website to find out the details: http://www.goodsearch.com/
Give the Gift of Your Service and Volunteer Your Time
We are currently in need of more local volunteers! We need Animal Caregivers, Handy people, and Gardeners/Landscapers. Retirees are welcome. If you live on Maui and are interested in becoming one of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s Angels, by volunteering your time and skills, please e-mail pps@pacificprimate.org
“Some people give time, some money, some their skills and connections, some literally give their life's blood. But everyone has something to give.” — Barbara Bush
Our Wish List
You can contribute to the monkeys by donating much needed items, including:
- commercial power washer - sewing machine
- heavy-duty weed eater - construction tools
- gardening supplies & equipment - pillowcases
- pet carriers - ride-on lawnmower
Please contact us at pps@aloha.net if you have an item you’d like to donate!
We deeply appreciate your continued partnership. You, and your family and friends, can make tax-deductible donations to the Sanctuary on our Website: www.pacificprimate.org and on FaceBook, using PayPal, or by sending a check to:Pacific Primate Sanctuary
500-A Haloa Road
Haiku, HI 96708
Your contributions allow us to continue our life-saving work,
and your partnership gives us the faith to carry-on.
MALAMA ‘AINA, MALAMA KANAKA
Take care of the land and the land will take care of you!
This year have a green holiday by utilizing these simple eco-friendly tips:
Buy Local- Purchase your holiday food items from local farmer’s markets, the food will taste fresher and you will reduce your carbon footprint by not purchasing items that have been shipped across the country. Support local businesses by finding Christmas gifts locally.
Make or Reuse Decorations- Rather than purchasing all new decorations, spend time with your family making decorations! Make a tradition of reusing family or vintage decorations.
Send E-cards or Recycled cards-This year, send E-Cards online and completely cut out the paper, while also saving money on stamps and cards. You can also find beautiful recycled cards, and even cards that have seeds in the paper, which can be planted!
Better Gift Wrap- Use recycled wrapping paper, or find re-useable items to wrap with. Re-useable shopping bags, decorative boxes, or scarves are all beautiful wrapping options.
This information was found on the following site, which has additional ideas:
https://power2switch.com/blog/15-go-green-this-holiday-season-simple-eco-friendly-holiday-tips/
PPS INTERNSHIP
Welcome to our New Intern, Katie
Katie arrived on November 7, 2013 to begin her year-long Resident Internship. She has a degree in Anthropology, and has taken courses in primate behavior. Katie has experience working with traumatized dogs, cats and horses at an animal sanctuary, but this is her first time caring for primates. The monkeys have taken to her gentle nature immediately. We are delighted to have Katie on Team PPS!
In her acceptance letter, Katie writes:
I am deeply humbled by the opportunity to accept a resident internship at PPS. I feel in my bones that I belong in a place where I can help soothe the wounds suffered at the feet of humans. Thank you for welcoming me there…I am excited to learn the monkeys’ ways of knowing the world, to actively help rather than lament, and to more fully appreciate the power of compassion... I am so grateful for the chance to not only explore my interests but to live in a community that shares my values. In this special meeting place of ideals and ambition, of intellect and emotion, I am hopeful that I have something important to offer others. I am devoted to contribute all that I can to this cause….
Today marks a strange place in Natural History, where species once capable of the profound autonomy and freedom bestowed upon wild creatures now rely upon human beings for survival. With this tragic transition comes a tremendous responsibility. Perhaps, for those fortunate enough to access the secret worlds of other species, this modern juncture in human-animal relations represents a great privilege: to learn from other beings in preciously close proximity. I believe PPS offers such an opportunity, and for that I am endlessly grateful. Where we can live peacefully beside other creatures, and perhaps see our reflections in monkey faces, we can truly feel why humans should be proud to be animals.
CONTINUING EDUCATION
Intern Katie: Special Topic
The social organization of marmosets: a critical evaluation of recent concepts
In the wild, marmoset and tamarin (callitrichid) groups are typically structured to support a single reproductively monogamous pair. This pair represents the dominant member of either sex and, though each may maintain sexual access to subordinate group members, they are generally the only two to successfully produce offspring. Duties involved in rearing young, specifically infant carrying, are shared with lower-ranking individuals. This allows non-breeding members to increase their inclusive reproductive fitness, as subordinate group members are typically the offspring of the dominant pair or otherwise closely related. When individuals do emigrate from their natal group, often as a result of aggression between siblings, they commonly establish new groups and home ranges near to that of their original families. It is also plausible for such individuals to join an existing group, though the likelihood of being accepted into a group of non-relatives is extremely small. Interactions between groups are rarely amicable, especially between unrelated members of the same sex. Therefore, callitrichids depend on their ability to recognize genetic relatives both to avoid incest and in navigating intergroup dynamics.Family dynamics likewise play a crucial role in determining intragroup (within the group) social hierarchies. Alpha status is typically occupied by the group’s founders, or those who proved dominance through physical aggression as the group was formed. The second-ranking female tends to be the dominant female’s oldest daughter. Often, these females experience more regular ovulation and are less prone to unsuccessful pregnancies, difficulty lactating, and other reproductive challenges. Reproductive monogamy is also secured by mate-guarding in the dominant pair, who remain in relatively close spatial proximity to one another throughout long-lasting partnerships. Lower-ranking relatives and unrelated group members are socially marginalized, but participate in group protection as well as caring for infants. Interestingly, females may carry the offspring of two fathers at once, which increases the evolutionary advantage to sharing parental duties for subordinates.
Captive groups largely function similarly, with the notable exceptions of human participation in group formation and environmental factors. As in wild settings, the majority of social tension occurs between siblings, which can result in expulsion from the group. Expulsions of dominant or parent individuals are rare, and virtually never involve the support of the individual’s mate. Large captive groups comprised only of siblings have proved to be unstable, involving failure to establish a social hierarchy, and far more exhibitions of self-grooming than social grooming. Although cooperation, reciprocity, and altruistic participation in caring for young are core aspects of callitrichid social structure, and single pairs are practically never seen living without a group in the wild, lone pairs can function successfully in captive settings.
Many researchers postulate that the function of callitrichids’ unique social organization, is necessitated by the specific pressures of living in the wild. For instance, subordinate individuals expend energy supporting another’s offspring in order to secure their place in the group, and larger group sizes may serve to increase protection from predators. Similarly, because infant carrying reduces one’s ability to forage and travel quickly between food sources, sharing this duty presents an important means of propagating the species. This is especially true because callitrichids are almost always born as twins, and the body weight of infants makes up an unusually high proportion of adult body size. That being said, dominant pairs in the wild almost exclusively care for infants during the early stages of weaning, and mothers only accept help from the select few nearest to her in social rank. In captivity, where food is predictably provided and easily accessible, the need for group infant rearing or carrying diminishes greatly. Other theories suggest that group rearing is a form of social learning essential to successful infant care in subsequent generations. However, wild alpha females typically reject the participation of those without experience, and exhibit very high success rates in single pair families in captivity. Due to their favored social position enjoyed by the alpha pair, those who assist in rearing young in the wild may benefit by one day inheriting dominance. Once again, this advantage does not apply to captive settings, where groups are so largely determined by humans.Ultimately, these findings support the success of single-pair family groups at PPS. This dynamic not only reduces the risk of eviction from the group tremendously, but also ensures less stress to the animals by reducing the likelihood of competition for rank, social peripheralization of subordinates by the alpha pair, and sibling tension. Because rejected group members cannot choose to abandon their group’s home range or establish a new group in captivity, this restricted group size also helps ensure that the monkeys at PPS continue to recognize their enclosures as their territory.
-Rylands, A.B. Marmosets and Tamarins. Systematics, Behavior, and Ecology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Special Topic: Intern Rachel
Summary: Chapters 4 “Natural History, Time Course, and Pathogenesis of Idiopathic Colitis in Cotton-Top Tamarin” and Chapter 7 “Extraintestinal Manifestations of Cotton-Top Tamarin Colitis”
The cotton-top tamarin is a species that spontaneously develops colitis in many captive settings. In the particular study presented in this chapter, the spontaneous development of idiopathic ulcerative colitis was investigated. The 6-yr examination of forty 4- to 7-yr-old Cotton-top tamarins at 2 to 3 month intervals has shown that the spontaneous colitis observed resembles the human disease in its course, age dependence, varying periods of exacerbation and remission, and eventual susceptibility of the animal to colon cancer. Considerable animal-to-animal variation existed, as is seen in humans. Active colitis was superimposed upon chronic colitis and occurred either asymptomatically or symptomatically. Severity was measured based on the types and number of inflammatory cells present in the colon. While age had little effect on body weight and stool condition, the severity of the colitis (mild vs. severe) and the duration of the disease dramatically affected both body weight and stool condition. Spontaneous cotton Top Tamarin colitis closely mimics the pathogenesis (origin and development) of the human disease, thus management and treatment options are similar. There is no cure for colitis, so treatment focuses on alleviating the symptoms of the disease.
A feature of tamarin colitis, as well as human ulcerative colitis, is the occurrence of extraintestinal manifestations of the disease including ankylosing spondylitis and peripheral arthropathy (both are forms of chronic inflammation of the joints), iritis (inflammation of the iris of the eye), episcleritis (inflammation in the thin white coating of the eye) and liver diseases (fatty liver, mild periportal chronic inflammation). More rarely, cholangiocarcinoma (bile duct cancer), hepatic abscesses, or cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) are seen.
The cotton-top tamarin tends to develop a non-infective spontaneously occurring colitis, which closely resembles human ulcerative colitis. This chapter discusses a study that evaluated liver and joint disease in cotton top tamarins with colitis. Livers from 100 cotton-top tamarins with ulcerative colitis were examined histological at postmortem; 40 had varied pathology: steatosis-16 (fatty degeneration), hepatitis- 4 (inflammation), and abscess- 4. Four animals had excessive portal fibrosis in the absence of significant inflammation and which resembled sclerosing cholangitis (a disease of the bile ducts that causes inflammation and subsequent obstruction of bile ducts both inside the liver and outside the liver). The findings of sclerosing cholangitis-like liver abnormalities strengthen the role of the Cotton Top Tamarin as a unique animal model of ulcerative colitis. The inflammation of the colon that defines colitis is managed several ways and with varying degrees of success in our tamarins and marmosets. We have used dietary changes, medications and supplements to help alleviate the symptoms associated with the disease.-Clapp, Neal K..“A Primate Model for the Study of Colitis and Colonic Carcinoma: The Cotton-Top Tamarin”
Special Topic: Intern Shani
Chapter Summary: Communication and the use of the Whinny in Spider Monkeys
Spider monkeys forage in fruit patches that are distributed over large areas. They may spend long amounts of time away from their groups, and because of this their need for communication is high.
Klein and Roosmalen (1987) state that female spider monkeys have an elongated clitoris to leave urine behind for scent communication. Spider monkeys also have sternal secretions, which they mix with saliva using their hands. The hand is then smelled by other individuals after separation from the group. Carlos and Montana often scent mark their hands, then offer the marked hand to us for us to smell! The also smell their hands after they have been touched.
Long distance vocalizations may be the main way a spider monkey can locate group members and maintain their social relationships. Eisenberg (1976) distinguished 13 different vocalizations in a captive study. There are several different vocalizations, but only the whinny has been studied in detail. The most common vocalization is the 'bark', which is a defensive sound emitted when an intruder approaches. The next is the 'growl', which occurs in aroused males. The whinny is the next most common and occurs when an individual is separated from the group.
In any primate community, communication performed will have multiple functions. This is because the various recipients will have different relationships with the caller. But what is the function of the whinny? Chapman and Lefebvre (1990) found the whinny is to attract group members to a food source to decrease the predation. They also found high ranking individuals called lower ranking individuals and the frequency of calls increased if the food source was more abundant. Texidor and Byrne (1992) found that whinnys emitted when travelling provoked a more active response, for example the recipient would call back or travel to the caller. Campbell (2008) believes that whinnys maintain contact between individuals in different subgroups. Another theory is that it enables monkeys to distinguish between members and non-group members. There are many theories about the function of the whinny but the only proven fact is that it contains the identity of the caller. Carlos and Montana frequently whinny when their caregivers approach, as well as when they are eating favorite food items.
C.J. Campbell (Ed), Spider Monkeys: Behavior, Ecology and Evolution of the Genus Ateles (pp. 81-109). New York: Cambridge University Press.
"No act of kindness, however small, is ever wasted." — Aesop
We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for over 50 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and tourist attractions. Here they can heal, form social groups, and live free from exploitation.
Posts
No comments:
Post a Comment