Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 4, Issue 9, Part 2

CONTINUING EDUCATION 

Special Topic: Intern Mary
 Colitis in Marmosets and Tamarins

 Colitis, inflammation of the large intestine, is a common disease in captive marmosets and tamarins (Rand, 2008). Colitis can be caused by a wide variety of infections and illnesses. It can also be caused by a lack of blood supply to the large intestine and can be an autoimmune disease, in which the body’s own immune system attacks the large intestine causing inflammation. A study conducted on tamarins showed one suspected cause of colitis to be chronic exposure to a dietary substance of which they are allergic, such as proteins in wheat, soy and milk (Gozalo and Montoya, 1991; Gore et al., 1999). 

Symptoms of colitis include abdominal cramping, bowel spasms, and loose stool, which in turn often cause weight loss and dehydration. Loose stool is the most frequent symptom in marmosets suffering from this disease and is seen often in some of the marmosets here at Pacific Primate Sanctuary.

 The majority of methods to manage colitis in captive marmosets and tamarins most often involve medication as well as dietary changes. Marmosets suffering from chronic loose stool have been shown to crave protein and calcium (Wissman, 1999). Some studies have also shown that the removal of wheat derived substances from the diet and the addition of gum arabic helps treat chronic loose stool as well as assisting in the reversal of weight loss (Carroll 1997, Herron et al. 2001).

Sulfasalazine, Metronidazole, and Ciprofloxacin are all medications that have shown some positive results in managing colitis symptoms when used in humans (Rutgeerts, 2003). It has also been prescribed for colitis in nonhuman primates. Sulfasalazine is an anti-inflammatory drug that helps to relieve the inflammation in the large intestine. The benefit of sulfa is that it does not suppress the immune system as many other colitis medications do.

Azathioprine is a colitis medication, which we have recently begun using at PPS, which does suppress the immune system. As colitis can be an autoimmune disease, suppressing the immune system prevents the immune system from attacking cells in the large intestine that cause inflammation.
 Colitis is a common disease seen in captive marmosets and tamarins. It is difficult to manage and can go through cycles of remission with occasional flare-ups. Although several medications have shown positive results in helping to manage colitis many of these medications have not been well studied for use in marmosets and tamarins. Unfortunately several monkeys at Pacific Primate Sanctuary suffer from the symptoms of colitis and a few have frequent flare ups. With the help of medications and the dedicated care of PPS volunteers the monkeys at PPS are able to live healthy active lives, even while dealing with this disease.
 Sources:
Carroll, J. B. (1997): A comparative summary of the nutritional adaptations and needs of callitrichids and application to captive management. In: Marmosets and tamarins in biological and biomedical research, C. Pryce, L. Scott and C. Schnell (eds). DSSD Imagery: Salisbury, UK. 70–77.
Gore, M., Brach, M., Brandes, F., Motthes, T., Lenzner, R. and Kaup, F.-J. (1999): Effects of wheat in callitrichid diet. In: First European Zoo Nutrition Meeting, 8–11th January 1999, Rotterdam, Hatt, J.-M. (ed.). Abstract Book. 41.
Gozalo, A. and Montoya, E. (1991): Mortality causes of the moustached tamarin (Saguinus mystax) in captivity. J. Med. Primatol. 21: 35–38.
Herron, S., Price, E. and Wormell, D. (2001): Feeding gum arabic to New World monkeys: species differences and palatability. Anim. Welfare 10: 249–256.
 Rand, M. S. (2008): Nonhuman primates as models for biomedical research. http://www.uac.arizona.edu/VSC443/primatesasbiomod/Nonhuman_Primates_as_Models_for_Biomedical_Research(PDF).pdf University of Animal Care. University of Arizona, Tucson: 15. Rutgeerts, P. (2003): Antibiotics in the treatment of Crohn’s disease: everybody uses them. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 9: 5-6. Ruvio, E. B. (2010): EAZA Husbandry guidelines for Callitichidae. http://www.marmosetcare.com/downloads/EAZA_HusbandryGuidelines.pdf . Beauval Zoo, Second Ed.7-218. Wissman, M. A. Nutrition and husbandry of Callitrichids (marmosets and tamarins). Vet Clin North Am Exotic Anim Pract. 1999;2:209-240.


 Special Topic: What is an Ethogram? 

An ethogram is a detailed list of behaviors seen in a species in certain situations [1]. Each behavior is described in objective and mutually exclusive terms. Its lack of subjectivity makes ethograms great for behavioral observation studies. Here at the sanctuary, the Interns and Volunteers can use them to describe each monkey’s behaviors without bias. Creating an ethogram requires carefully watching the subject and deciding how to best define each behavior. The definition of a behavior in an ethogram may have seemingly irrational details, but each ethogram is created with a specific goal in mind and each definition is tailored to help fulfill that goal [1]. The finished catalog of behaviors can be displayed as a chart, videos or pictures. This is a sample of an ethogram for the common marmoset (C. jacchus) created by Lissa Pabst [2]. Many of the behaviors described below can be seen when watching the marmosets at the sanctuary.

FOOD-ASSOCIATED BEHAVIORS
Food steal	ST	take any food from hands or mouth of partner
Attempt food steal	AF	attempt but fail to take food from hands or mouth of partner
Share food	SH	eat from a food source from which partner is simultaneously eating or occupying without removing any food from partner's mouth or hands
New food	NF	eat from a food source which no other animal is currently holding, eating from, or occupying
Individual behaviors
Bristle strut	BS	arching posture and/or strut locomotion and/or general Piloerection
Scentmark	SM	rub or drag anogenital, suprapubic, or sternal region along substrate, object, or partner
Genital present	GP	raise tail to expose genitals
Object manipulation	OM	sniff, bite, chew, gouge, handle, pounce on, grapple with, or otherwise manipulate inanimate object, excluding food items and water bottle, for at least 1 sec

Below is an example of a pictorial ethogram created by the University of Stirling, the Primate Society of Great Britain, and the National Society for Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research [3].

Website sources:
 [1] http://biology.kenyon.edu/courses/biol261/Ethogram/EthoBody.htm
[2] http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/callicam/ethogram.html
[3] http://www.marmosetcare.com/understanding-behaviour/postures.html


 Special Topic: COO Erin
 Primate Social Structure 

At Pacific Primate Sanctuary, we strive to provide the monkeys in our care with a home that simulates their natural environment. Primates are highly social animals and understanding their social structure is vital to facilitating social groupings that fulfill their needs.

Social group structure varies widely across species; however, it is rare for one species to be found with more than one social structure. Interestingly, humans are an exception to this rule, and can be found living in any of the following social groups.

There are 6 basic primate pairings:

1. Noyau- this group consists of a single female and her offspring. In these social groups the males and females do not live together. Males generally have large territories, that will overlap the range of several females, coming together only for mating. Orangutans are an example of this society. Males in these societies are usually significantly larger than the females, since they have big territories to protect.

2. Monogamous- this group consists of a mated pair and their offspring. We are very familiar with this social structure, as Marmosets and tamarins live in this type of family group. Typically, the male investment in offspring care is very high in monogamous societies. In Callitrichids (marmosets and tamarins) the infants are relatively large in comparison to the adult size. Carrying infants requires a lot of energy, so the father’s take on this role the majority of the time, allowing the mother to conserve her energy for producing milk. Since they live in pairs, rather than huge groups, the males do not need to compete for access to females, nor do they have to protect large groups, so typically there is very little or no sexual dimorphism (physical differences between males and females) in monogamous species.

3. Polyandrous- this type of society consists of one mating female and more than one mating male. Polyandry is extremely rare among primates, but can be found occasionally in Callitrichids. This usually starts with the typical monogamous mated pair, but a second adult male may join the group to help with child rearing. In these cases, the second male can potentially become a mate to the females as well.

4. Polygynous groups consist of one mating male, and several mating females. This is a very common group type among primates, including the capuchin monkeys who live at PPS. . The males in such groups are usually significantly larger than the females (often twice as big!) and also have huge canine teeth, which aid them in protecting their group from predators and rival males.

5. Multimale-Multifemale is another common social pattern, consisting of many males and females, all with many different mates. These groups typically have a dominance hierarchy, and are led by an alpha male and an alpha female. Each individual knows his or her rank, which helps prevent violence among the group. Macaques are an example of this type of social structure.

6. Fission-Fusion- in these societies the group size and composition changes throughout the year. The variations can occur based on food and mate availability. Spider Monkey, like Carlos and Montana, live in this type of culture. When food is scarce larger groups will split up, but when food is abundant more animals will come together. Animals will also leave and join other groups when searching for mates. 

The social organization of primate societies is often dictated by the lifestyle of the animal. For example, baboons live on the savannahs- large open spaces with scarce food supplies and many predators. An individual, or even a small group would be an easy target for hyenas, or lions, it would also be impossible for them to protect their food sources. There is safety in numbers, so baboon societies tend to be huge. Callitrichids, on the other hand, live high up in the canopy and have specialized in order to exploit a unique food niche= eating tree gums. This food source is high in calories and nutrients, and there is little competition. These monkeys defend much smaller territories, so they do not need such large groups. Additionally, the parental care required from both parents is very high, so it is most beneficial for them to live in monogamous family units. By understanding how the different social groups work, and by careful observation of individuals and family groups, we are able to create the right social situation for the monkeys to thrive.

References:
http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/asb/origins/primates/organization.html http://anthro.palomar.edu/behavior/behave_2.htm
http://www-personal.umich.edu/~phyl/anthro/mating.html http://ocw.nd.edu/anthropology/primate-behavior/lectures-1/session-14-social-organization

 If man is not to stifle his human feelings, he must practice kindness towards animals, for he who is cruel to animals becomes hard also in his dealings with men. We can judge the heart of a man by his treatment of animals. 
-Immanuel Kant 

 We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and happiness for 70 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and tourist attractions. Here they can heal, form social groups, and live free from exploitation. 


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