CONTINUING EDUCATION
Special
Topic: Intern Stephanie- Marmosets and Tamarins:
Chapter 15: Ecological differentiation in the
Callitrichidae by Stephen F. Ferrari
Introduction
The family Callitrichidae
includes cotton top tamarins, white-tufted eared marmosets, black-tufted eared
marmosets, Wied’s marmosets, and saddleback tamarins, which are the five
species found here at the sanctuary.
While all callitrichids share several characteristics, when you look at
all the individual species in the family it becomes apparent that along with
all of their similarities there are distinct differences.
Gum
Exploits in callitrichids
Dental morphology varies within Callitrichidae. Short-tusked marmosets have teeth designed for bark gouging, which is needed to exploit plant exudates. Tamarins, on the other end of the spectrum, do not have specialized teeth for bark gouging; they feed on exudates opportunistically. The variation seen in gum feeding is not only seen between marmosets and tamarins, but also among tamarins (Saguinus). Saddleback tamarins (S. fuscicollis) are reported to be more gumnivorous than other Saguinus species. Data on gut morphology and digestive efficiency suggest that S. fuscicollis is less specialized for eating gums than marmosets, but there is no evidence to confirm that they are more equipped than other tamarins.
Dental morphology varies within Callitrichidae. Short-tusked marmosets have teeth designed for bark gouging, which is needed to exploit plant exudates. Tamarins, on the other end of the spectrum, do not have specialized teeth for bark gouging; they feed on exudates opportunistically. The variation seen in gum feeding is not only seen between marmosets and tamarins, but also among tamarins (Saguinus). Saddleback tamarins (S. fuscicollis) are reported to be more gumnivorous than other Saguinus species. Data on gut morphology and digestive efficiency suggest that S. fuscicollis is less specialized for eating gums than marmosets, but there is no evidence to confirm that they are more equipped than other tamarins.
Foraging
strategies in lion tamarins and saddleback tamarins
All members of the Callitrichidae family forage for insects in tree crowns using “scan
and pounce” or “leaf-gleaning” techniques. Unlike other Saguinus species, lion
tamarins and saddleback tamarins employ a more manipulative form of foraging,
which means they examine a variety of different microhabitats when searching
for prey and use their long fingers to catch
small, cryptic prey hiding in crevices, under leaves, and in dense growth. Both
saddleback and lion tamarins capture larger prey compared to other callitrichids,
which can be attributed to their manipulative form of foraging. Lion tamarins
seem to be morphologically specialized for this type of foraging, saddleback
tamarins are as well, but not to the same degree. Though they have similar
foraging patterns lion tamarins and saddleback tamarins differ in other ways.
Aside from being the largest and smallest of the genus Saguinus, respectively, lion tamarins occupy a higher stratum in
the forest, while saddle back tamarins use a lower strata. These differences may have other
implications in terms of their ecological behaviors. Lion tamarins have a
relatively inflexible ecology and have a more restricted distribution, while
saddleback tamarins are among the most widely distributed callitrichids.
Variation
in body size
The small size of marmosets and tamarins gives them an
advantage in attaining food. They can survive on smaller more energy rich
sources for long periods of time. This allows them to experience a lower level
of competition with larger animals. These animals are not interested in these
smaller resources, because it is not practical to expel more energy on a
smaller resource. For example, the spider monkeys and the capuchins at the
sanctuary would have to eat a much larger amount of fruit to get enough energy
compared to the marmosets and tamarins. Callitrichids benefit from their small
body size and looking at the variation within the family (weights of 100g-400g)
we can see that all callitrichids have found a way to use their ecological difference
to survive in the wild.
-Rylands, A.B. Marmosets and Tamarins. Systematics,
Behavior, and Ecology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Special
Topic: Intern Mary- The Complete Capuchin
Taxonomy, distribution, and conservation: where and what
are they and how did they get there?
Capuchin monkeys are
distributed throughout Central and South America. Capuchins belong to the genus
Cebus and several species fall within
the genus. C. capucinus, commonly
known as the white-faced or white-throated capuchin is the species present here
at Pacific Primate Sanctuary.
The
white-faced capuchin is the only species found in Central America with a
distribution ranging from Honduras through Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and
slightly into South America around Ecuador. Capuchins are extremely adaptable
and occupy every type of Neotropical forest, from humid and dry tropical
forests to deciduous forest with very little rainfall. They use all levels of
the forest canopy and will spend time on the ground to travel, forage, and
drink. The amount of time spent at each level of the forest does however vary
from species to species.
Habitat
destruction is the main factor causing a decline in capuchin monkey populations
today. This destruction began in the 1500s and has placed Atlantic forest into
one of the most threatened tropical forests in the world. Neotropical forests
continue to be cut down at present for several reasons including logging,
clear-cutting for agriculture, flooding for hydroelectric projects, and road
building. Slash and burn agriculture, the deliberate burning of land to
replenish nutrients to the soil, causes runaway fires which in turn destroy
larger amounts of forest. These types of destruction result in fragmented
forest, small islands of forested areas, which are unable to support primate
populations causing the primates to enter into agricultural areas.
Agricultural
areas create easy access for hunters, and makes capuchins, as well as several
other New World primate species, easy targets not only to be used as food but
also to be placed into the pet trade. Efforts to restore and conserve the
habitat of capuchin monkeys and to control the capture and trade of these
species have slowly begun to regenerate capuchin populations and will hopefully
continue to do so in the future.
Prospero
and Miracle, the two capuchins here at Pacific Primate Sanctuary, where both
born at the sanctuary and did not undergo the traumatic experience of being
taken from the wild. They are able to enjoy a stable enriching environment here
at PPS with natural plants, a varied diet, and the ability to socialize with
each other. Their outdoor enclosure provides them with a variety of levels
similar to that of a natural forest and they can be seen throughout the day exploring
all of these levels.
-Fragaszy,
D.M., Visalberghi, E., Fedigan, L.M. (2004) The Complete Capuchin: The
Biology of the Genus Cebus. UK. Cambridge University Press
Special
Topic: Intern Annabel- Antibiotic Classification and Use
Antibiotics We Use at PPS
As we saw in last month’s
article, different antibiotics have different uses. Below, is a list of the antibiotics that we typically use at
PPS, and the illnesses they treat. We use certain types of antibiotics more
than others for several reasons, including past success rates, possible side
affects, and the best combat for certain types of bacteria.
Amoxicillin is rarely used at PPS. It is a moderate spectrum antibiotic. It can be used for the treatment of
urinary tract, skin, and soft tissue infections caused by susceptible
organisms.
The most common antibiotic that we use at Pacific Primate
Sanctuary is Clavamox. Clavamox is a broad-spectrum
antibiotic. It can be used to
treat a number of things. It is
given to monkeys that have sustained injuries to help prevent infection or
fight off early stages of infection.
It is used to combat cold and flu like symptoms. It is used to treat tooth abscesses and
other minor or undetermined infections.
Ciprofloxacin is
another common antibiotic used at PPS.
Ciprofloxacin is an antibiotic of the fluroquinolone drug class. It kills bacteria by interfering with
the enzymes that cause DNA to rewind after being copied, which stops the
synthesis in DNA and protein. It
is used for diarrhea with blood with blood and/or mucous with a foul odor
(bacterial stomach infection).
Doxycycline is an
antibiotic that can be used to treat a variety of infections including E-coli
infections; Lyme disease; urinary tract infections; upper respiratory
infections; and MASA infections.
Its most common use here at PPS is to treat bacterial digestive tract
infections. It can be used in the
place of Erythromycin.
Enrofloxacin
(Baytril) is another antibiotic that is rarely used at PPS. It is used to treat a broad spectrum of
infections including salmonella, staphylococcus, and mycobacterium. It is administered as an intramuscular
(IM) injection. This enables it to
get antibiotics into the body faster so can be used in more urgent cases.
Erythromycin
Ethylsuccinate is a macrolide antibiotic that has an antimicrobial spectrum
similar to or slightly wider than that of penicillin, and is often used for people who
have an allergy to penicillins. It is used to
treat campylobacter. It must be
diagnosed and suggested by a vet. If Erythromycin is unavailable, Doxycycline
can be used instead.
Metronidazole is an antibiotic, amebicide, and
antiprotozoal. It is the drug of
choice for first episodes of mild-to-moderate Clostridium difficile infection. It is used to treat
severe bouts of loose stool. We
typically use Metronidazole here at PPS when a culture from the vet indicates
that there is no obvious bacterial infection is seen in monkeys.
-Wikipedia
-Antibiotics, Todar, 2000
-http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Antibiotics
I don't know what your destiny will be, but one
thing I do know: the only ones among you who will be really happy are those who
have sought and found how to serve.
— Albert Schweitzer, philosopher,
physician, musician, Nobel laureate
We hope you have enjoyed this issue of Pacific Primate Sanctuary’s
E-Newsletter. Thank you for your support of our life saving work. Because of
compassionate people, the Sanctuary can continue to provide a place of peace and
happiness for 70 primates saved from research laboratories, animal dealers, and
tourist attractions. Here they can heal, form social groups, and live free
from exploitation.
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