Primate Update E-Newsletter, Vol. 3, Issue 11, Part 3

CONTINUING EDUCATION

Special Topic: Intern Annabel


A Study to Assess the Success of Integrating One Female White Tufted Marmoset into an Already Established Group of Two Female Individuals

Wild common marmosets (white-tufted eared marmosets) were long considered to be monogamous. Evidence from recent field studies show that they have a large social structure that revolves around a stable family unit consisting of a few dominant breeding individuals (Sussman 2000). Groups of common marmosets range in size from three to fifteen animals but usually average at around nine members (Ferrari 1989). Within the group three generations are usually encompassed, including one or two breeding females with one breeding male and related adults (possibly parents and/or siblings) and the breeding animals’ offspring (Ferrari and Digby 1996). Females in the group are closely related (mother, daughter, sister), while breeding males are distantly related, having immigrated from another group. When males are closely related to breeding females, they do not breed (Nievergelt et al. 2000). Unlike many other primate species, emigration (leaving the natal group) does not occur in adolescence in common marmosets. Instead, they remain in the groups until they are adults, then the males leave to find breeding females and thus establish their own family group (Ferrari & Digby 1996).

In captivity it is not always possible to sustain these family groups. Breeding in captivity is not always desired and so breeding pairs must be split up or the males have to be vasectomised. Additionally, enclosure space may not support large family units. If allowed to breed and remain in these family groups, careful planning must go to the new pairing of offspring. They do not have the option to search for mates themselves as they do in the wild, or have a place to flee if rejected, thus causing potentially dangerous situations.

Here at PPS, we have had great success with female pairings.  

Oona and Little Bea, shown above,

have formed a close bond.

In a study conducted by a laboratory testing on common marmosets, it was found that pairs of unrelated females could be grouped and were able to live together. They studied 28 pairs and of the 28 they had a successful long lasting pairing of 80%. They found that pairs in which one of the females was sexually immature (less than 15 months) had a higher success rate than those in which both females were post pubertal. In conclusion the pairing of two unrelated female individuals is a safe practice (Buchanan-Smith et al 2003).

A study was conducted regarding reproductive suppression on subordinate female marmoset monkeys. This study followed a group of up to four female marmosets all living together in one enclosure. It showed that one dominant female ruled the group and that her dominance suppressed the ovulation and reproductive cycles of the non-dominant females. Within three days of forming these female only groups, a dominance hierarchy was established that consisted of a dominant (rank 1) female and her subordinates (ranks 2 and below). The ranking order was confirmed using behavioral analysis of recorded aggressive and submissive interactions between group members. Briefly, the highest-ranking female received most submissions and the least aggression and the lowest ranking female received most aggression and the least submissions (Barrett et al 1990). This study shows that it is possible to form groups of up to four unrelated females.

Introducing one female into an already established social group of two may be harder than establishing a totally new group. Visual contact is recommended as the first step. This is followed by pairing the new animal with each member of the group in a “neutral” environment for extended periods of time to allow the new member to form affinitive social relationships with all group members before final group introduction. The new group or pair should be closely observed during the initial stages, and at regular intervals thereafter to determine compatibility. Grooming, huddling, mating and play are behaviors indicative of compatibility, whilst aggression or signs of withdrawal, fear and inactivity suggest incompatibility. Attention should also be focused on possible loss of weight and deterioration of body condition possibly resulting from social incompatibility (Buchanan-Smith 2009).

In conclusion, research has shown that it is possible for groups of unrelated female marmosets to live together in groups larger than two. Integration of a new female into an already established social group is possible but can take a lot of time and patience. A dominance hierarchy will be formed within the group and so some signs of aggression are inevitable whilst individuals try to establish this hierarchy. This has been seen to take up to three days, after which the group should stabilize. It is impossible to predict a transition will be successful. A possible consequence of creating a multi-female group could be the splitting up of an already established group. However, the new individual is typically the lowest ranking female therefore the already established group should remain intact if the larger group does not work out. The success will solely depend on the individuals involved; however as previously stated a female only social group can be created.

References
-J. Barrett, D. H. Abbott and L. M. George. Extension of Reproductive Suppression by Pheromonal Cues in Subordinate Female Marmoset Monkeys, Callithrix jacchus 1990
-B Majolo*†, H M Buchanan-Smith and K Morris 2003 Factors Affecting the Successful Pairing of Unfamiliar Common Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) Females: Preliminary Results
-Boinski S. Noon C, Stans S. Samudo R. Sammarco P. Hayes A 1994. The behavioral profile and environmental enrichment of a squirrel monkey colony. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 33 (4), 1-4.
-Dr. Hannah Buchannan Smith 2000 Considerations for the Housing and Handling Of New World Primates in the Laboratory
-Mittermeier RA, Rylands AB, Coimbra-Filho AF, da Fonseca GAB 1988. (eds). Ecology and Behavior of Neotropical Primates vol 2, Washington DC, World Wildlife Fund.
-Price EC, McGrew WC 1990. Cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus (o) oedipus) in a seminaturalistic captive colony. American Journal of Primatology 20, 1- 12 .
-Sheperdson D 1989a. Environmental Enrichment in Zoos: 2. RATEL 16, 68-73.


Special Topic: Intern Caroline
Complete Capuchin- Chapter 11-Living Together. Social interactions, relationships and social structure.

When working with primates it is sometimes difficult to decipher the difference between a welcome signal and a threat. This chapter was highly informative focusing on those indicators in Capuchin monkeys. For example, a grin or smile (jaw is closed, showing the upper and lower teeth row) which may look to us like a friendly sign, is actually not.

This mild threat expression can very quickly turn into a full on threat face (mouth wide open, showing canines and bark-like calls).

Next time you walk by the capuchin enclosure and Prospero offers you his hand think twice before extending yours. Take a minute to observe his body language, in particular his facial expressions and vocal noises.

- Fragaszy, D.M., Visalberghi, E., Fedigan, L.M. (2004) The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. UK. Cambridge University Press.




Special Topic: Dawn
Spider Monkeys- Chapter 2: Morphology and evolution of spider monkey

Spider monkeys cast a distinct morphological silhouette – long scrawny arms and a snaky prehensile tail arching from a narrow pot-belly torso, topped by a small round head and blunt face, however, their energy rich diet allow the spider monkey anatomy to afford modestly enlarged brains. The anatomy of Spider monkeys closely resembles that of the Gibbon, a species considered to be among the most acrobatic arm-swingers in the world of primates.

The spine of the Spider monkey has several unique adaptations to suspensory locomotion, the most interesting of which enables the tail to twist, bend and curl up on itself, to be used in precision gripping and powerful clasping. Their acrobatic locomotive style of movement through the treetops gives them a distinct advantage over others when it comes to foraging for the best foods, with the capacity to extract an inordinate amount of its protein needs from fruit sources.

Research has expanded our sense of the uniqueness of Spider Monkeys and challenged long-held phylogenetic interpretations (Jones, 2004; Hartwig, 2005), but they have not altered the fundamental eco-morphological depiction of them as a ripe-fruit driven, upper canopy suspensory brachiator.

The complete elegance of this evolutionary package is far from what Geoffroy Staint- Hilaire had in mind when he dubbed spider monkeys genus Ateles (a reference to their lack of thumb).
-Campbell, Christina J. Spider Monkeys: The Biology, Behavior, and Ecology of the Genus Ateles (Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology). UK. Cambridge University Press. 2008.


Special Topic: Intern Linda


Marmosets and Tamarins
Chapter 3: Experimental Multiple Hybridism and Natural Hybrids among Callithrix Species from Eastern Brazil

A wild caught monkey, taken from his parents as an infant

 and sold in a marketplace in the inhumane exotic pet trade; 

Macaco’s physical appearance suggests he may be a hybrid

Hybridism can assist in many different fields. Forming hybrids can contribute to research by obtaining genetic codes, comparing resistance or susceptibility with pure breeds, and other biological investigations. Hybrids can develop in captivity but also occur in the wild.

In nature, hybrids are rare and in wild populations are generally not seen. Due to human activities, it is possible to create a disturbed area in which two different species meet. Some of the possibilities that allow species to meet are climate change, introductions, and deforestation. These hybrid zones are very narrow and are quite uncommon. Hybrids of C. kuhli and C. penicillata are reported to have been seen in the northern parts of Rio Jequitnhonha.

As these disturbed areas are increasing in nature it is very hard for scientist to provide suggestions regarding hybrid zones. With long-term studies, skillful observations, comparisons with parent species and neighboring surroundings will provide answers.

-Rylands, A.B. Marmosets and Tamarins. Systematics, Behavior, and Ecology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993.



True benevolence or compassion, extends itself through the whole of existence and sympathizes with the distress of every creature capable of sensation.                                              -- Joseph Addison

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